Lit Terms

Abstract

Abstract

Terms refer to ideas, feelings, qualities, or characteristics that are unable to be perceived by the senses. (ex. freedom, friendship, love, triumph)

Ex: The runner felt a sense of triumph after winning the marathon.

Concrete

Terms refer to people, places, or things that can be perceived by the senses. (ex. sandwich, car, table, mountain)

Ex: The boy ate a sandwich after climbing a mountain. 

Allegory 

A work of literature or art in which the characters are explained or depicted through ideas related to morals, religion, or politics.  

Ex: George Orwell’s popular allegorical novel, Animal Farm, represents communism in Russia in the early to mid 1900’s.  

Allusion

An allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing etc..

It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers.

Allusions are easy to miss unless you are well informed about what it is alluding to.

Ex: The lush park looks like the Garden of Eden.

Alliteration

The repetition of consonant sounds, but usually the first letters in two or more neighboring words or syllables.

Ex: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers

Anadiplosis

The inversion of the first and last word in a phrase or clause so that the last word of the first clause becomes the first word in the second clause

Ex: Waste not any time; time is of the essence.

Anaphora

The deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence,phrase, or paragraph in order to achieve an artistic effect

Ex: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness. . .”

Or Churchills WW2 Speech:

“we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight… we shall fight… etc”

Anastrophe

A rhetorical term for the inversion of conventional word order (adj.)

Ex: Angry she was. Right you are. (The way Yoda speaks.)

Antimetabole

A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first but with the words in reverse grammatical order (A-B, B-A).

Ex: It’s not how old you are, but how you are old.

Ex: I live to ride, and I ride to live.

Antithesis:

Direct Opposition

Ex: Love is the antithesis of hate. 

Aphorism 

A brief observation that contains a general truth, expresses an opinion and provides a statement of wisdom. 

Ex: Yesterday is but today’s memory and tomorrow is today’s dream.

Ethos

Attempting to appeal using credibility: listing accomplishments or degrees.

Ex: As a climatologist, I can say without a doubt that global warming is a real phenomenon.

Logos

Attempt to appeal using logic or facts.

Ex: As of 2013, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has reached 400ppm, and temperatures have risen by almost 1℃ since 1880.

Pathos

Attempt of persuading through the use of emotional appeal 

Ex: Because of global warming, sea levels will rise and every adorable baby polar bear will be left without a home. They will most likely die.

Appositive 

A noun (word, phrase, or clause) or noun phrase that renames another noun besides it. 

Ex: The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.

Assonance

The repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close to each other but start with different consonants.

Ex: The men sell wedding bells.

Asyndeton

The intentional omission of a conjunction to create a mood or change in pace. It generally speeds up the rhythm of a passage. 

Ex: He eats, and sleeps, and drinks.

Denotation

The literal, dictionary definition of a word, often contrasted with “connotation”

Ex: The denotation of “dove” is “a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs”

Diction

The choice and use of words and phrases in speech or writing

Ex: Wordsworth campaigned against exaggerated poetic diction

Epanalepsis

The repetition of the same word or phrase, often repeating the beginning of the clause at the end of the clause and intervening words setting off the repetition.

Ex: “It’s enough-enough to go to cemeteries, enough to weep for orphans-it's enough.”(Eli Wiesel, Speech at Buchenwald Concentration)

Epistrophe

The repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences. 

Almost a reverse of an anaphora

Ex: “Who is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak; for him have I offended….” (Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare) 

Euphemism

Definition: The substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought to be offensive, harsh, or blunt.

Ex: Saying he “passed away” is a euphemism for he died.

Extended Metaphor

A comparison between two unlike things (a metaphor) that continues throughout a paragraph or lines in a poem; it is often more than a sentence long and sometimes a whole paragraph. 

Ex: “But soft! What light through yonder window breaks?

It is the East, and Juliet is the sun!

Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,

Who is already sick and pale with grief.”

                      (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, Act 2 scene 2)

Romeo is comparing Juliet’s beauty to the sun, throughout 4 lines. 

Hyperbole 

An exaggerated claim or statement for the sake of emphasis. 

Ex: It has been forever since I have last seen my best friend.   

Ex: I am so hungry I could eat a horse.

Imagery 

The use of figurative language that uses the senses to create an image or picture in the reader’s mind.

Ex: I walked off into the distance, the sun bathing the desert in a fiery red glow as it set below the hills.       

Irony (dramatic) 

Dramatic irony is irony that is inherent in speeches or a situation of a drama and is  understood by the audience but not grasped by the characters in the play.

Ex: Viewers knowing that Senator Palpatine is the Sith Lord in Star Wars, but the Jedi don’t.

Ex: In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth acts loyal to King Duncan but the readers are aware that he is planning the king’s death.

Irony (situational) 

Irony involving a situation in which actions have an effect that is opposite from what was intended, so that the outcome is contrary to what was expected.

Ex: Examples of irony are often not ironic.

       Ex.) A student cheats on a test in order to receive a high grade. The student gets caught cheating and receives a zero. 

Irony (verbal)

Irony in which the intended meaning of a statement differs from the meaning that the words appear to express. Basically sarcasm.

Ex: You just failed the test you gave to your students. You really are a great teacher.

Ex: “As pleasant as surgery.”

Juxtaposition

Placing two opposite things close together for comparing and contrasting

Ex: Light and dark mentioned together in Macbeth

Ex: Success and failure (can be sentences, not just words)

Litotes  

Employs an understatement by using double negatives (?) or, in other words, a positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite expressions

ex: You aren’t bad at soccer.

You won’t be sorry.

Metaphor  

A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable; a mental comparison between two objects to describe something

Ex: After hearing about his dog’s death, the young boy was swallowed into a sea of despair and his heart was ripped in two.

Metonymy

In which a term is synonymous for another

Ex:“Washington” for the US government, “Hollywood” for the movie industry

 “Let me give you a hand.” Hand=help 

Mood

A feeling, emotional state, or disposition of mind in the tone of a literary work. The atmosphere of the piece. The feeling the reader experiences.

-the emotional situation of a piece that can be defined by tone, setting, theme and diction 

ex: The  sun rose over the smiling mountains giving a hug to all of Earth’s beautiful creations. (happy and cheerful mood) 

Ex. The light blue walls glistened as the sun hit them through the glass window of the noiseless yoga room. (serene and calm mood)

Motif

Is any element, subject, idea or concept that is constantly present through the entire body of literature. A motif refers to the repetition of a specific theme dominating the literary work.

Ex. In The Great Gatsby a motif was the green light at the end of the dock.  

Oxymoron

A figure of speech in which two opposite, or contradictory, terms/ideas are joined to create an effect.

Ex:  Jumbo shrimp; horrendously pretty

Paradox

 A paradox  is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly but may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in an innovative way.

Ex: Jack killed Uncle Bart with kindness.

Parallelism

The use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same or similar in their construction, sound, meaning or meter

ex: like father, like son. easy come, easy go. Work some, play some.

Parenthesis

An explanatory or qualifying word, clause, or sentence inserted into a passage using rounded brackets (usually disrupts the flow of the passage)

ex: a complete clause, according to my English teacher, contains both a subject and a predicate (verb). 

Passive Voice

The subject of the sentence isn’t doing the “doing”/ the subject is acted upon

Ex: He was eaten by the bear. (Active: The bear ate him.)

Personification

 The attribution of human nature or character to animals, inanimate objects, or abstract notions. 

Ex.-The moon glared down at me from the night sky. (The moon is being personified, moons cannot literally “glare”)

Polysyndeton

The use of many conjunctions in a brief amount of time to create a certain effect.

Ex: “In years gone by, there were in every community men and women who spoke the language of duty and morality and loyalty and obligation.” -William F. Buckley

Rhetorical Question

A question asked with no answer expected. Asked for effect or to lay emphasis on a point being discussed/make an assertion. It may be self-evident and used for style as a persuasive device. 

ex: Who knows? Why not?

Satire

Definition: A use of humor, irony, or sarcasm to criticize one’s stupidity, ignorance, foolishness, etc.; ridicule 

Examples: Stephen Colbert’s character on The Colbert Report,

Mark Twain satirizes religion, superstition, and slavery through “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”, “Weekend Update” on Saturday Night Live satirizes politics

Simile

Definition: A comparison between an aspect or the whole of a thing or concept, and another thing or concept, based on some likeness or similarity, to further describe or explain the primary subject of the comparison.; often if not always uses "as" paired with an adjective, or "like", to connect the two parts of the comparison, with the primary subject of the comparison being stated first.

Examples: 

- The plum was as deeply shaded as the grove from which it was picked.

- Her cries were like a thorn piercing straight into the hearts of onlookers. 

Symbol

Definition: a thing that represents or stands for something else, especially a material object representing something abstract

Example: Common examples of symbolism seen in writing today includes black, as a representation of evil or death, and a dove as a symbol of peace. 

Synecdoche: 

Definition: A figure of speech in which a part is made to represent a whole, or vice versa (a form of metonymy)

Ex: Get your butt over here!

Theme

Noun. a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work which may be stated directly or indirectly.

Example: A theme from Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby is that the chasing of the American dream leads to destruction.  

Tone

The writer’s attitude toward a character, place, situation, or topic. Tone is shown though word choice and the author’s viewpoint on a subject.

Examples: Stephen King’s tone in On Writing can be described as conversational. 

“I’m late for work? Great, just what I needed.” (sarcastic tone)

 

Tricolon Crescendo

A series of three words, phrases or clauses that are parallel in structure, length, and/or rhythm. They’re in order of least significant to most (like a crescendo) 

Ex: “vini, vidi, vici” meaning “I came, I saw, I conquered”

Ex: President Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address

“that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that

government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

Understatement

Stating less than the truth, showing a lower magnitude of something. Used intentionally to make a situation seem less serious.

ex: Upon viewing the trampoline lodged in his roof, Joe called his dad, telling him “Something happened.”

Ex: “It was windy in New Orleans during hurricane Katrina.”

Zeugma

The use of a word to modify or govern two or more words although its use may be grammatically or logically correct with only one.

Ex: She broke his car and his heart.

Ex: With weeping eyes and hearts, they left the funeral.

Ad hominem

Arising from or appealing to the emotions and not reason or logic. Involves commenting on or against an opponent to undermine him instead of his arguments

           Ex.) Political attacks on character or beliefs rather than specific policy

Ad populum

Appeal to popularity in an attempt to prove a conclusion.

Ex: “Dad! No one’s wearing their headgear--and their teeth look fine.”

Appeal to tradition

Assuming something is better simply because it is older, traditional, or has “always been done”. 

Ex: We’ve always played hockey with no head protection, why change now?

Begging the question

When a statement or claim is assumed to be true without any other evidence, using a premise to support itself. 

Ex: Because we love Ferg so much, we need to support him to keep his job.

Circular Reasoning

When the reasoner begins with what they are trying to end with. X is true because of Y. Y is true because of X.

Ex. I am a great dealmaker because I make great deals.

Either/or reasoning

Building an argument on the false assumption that only two outcomes are possible, and not realizing more exist... Presenting an unavoidable need to choose between two alternatives.

Ex: “You are either with God, or against him.”

“You’re either guilty, or not guilty.”

Faulty analogy

An incorrect comparison between two ideas/objects based on a similar characteristic when, in reality, the characteristic being compared is not common to both.

-assuming that since two things are alike in one situation, they are alike in every other situations (creating stereotypes and generalizations) 

Ex: Jack and Jerry both like cheese. Since Jerry loves tomato soup, Jack must as well. 

Faulty authority

The attempt to bolster claims by citing the opinions of experts without evaluation and comparison of credentials and claims

Ex. “My fifth grade teacher told me that golf is the gentleman’s sport. Therefore, golf is the gentleman’s sport.” (What experience, expertise, or knowledge does my 5th grade teacher have about golf? How can I trust his opinion?) 

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence

Ex. My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day since age fourteen and lived until age sixty-nine.  Therefore, smoking really can’t be that bad for you.

Ignoring the question

The process of avoiding an answer to a specific question due to a lack of proper response often through the use of circumlocution.

 

Ex. If someone asks a political candidate a question on specific climate change policy. The candidate instead talks about economic conditions in the country.

Non sequitur

A statement that does not logically follow the previous one. Seemingly random change of topic.

Ex: We thought Barry Kornshack, a known felon, would be a good lawyer because he drove up to the curb in a BMW.

Oversimplification

Failing to address the complexities of a matter; Explaining an event by relying on causal factors that are insufficient to account for the event or by overemphasizing the role of one or more of these factors. (to explain something in a way that doesn’t include all the details and causes a misinterpretation) 

Ex: A coach says the reason his team won the game was because they had a high carbohydrate meal before the game.

Pedantry

Narrow minded and trivial scholarship; a concern with details at the expense of genuinely important and significant issues. 

Ex: I would have agreed with that political scientist’s 47 page thesis paper; however, he misused a colon in his title.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

Latin translation- after this, therefore because of this; 

Two events are wrongly assumed to be related because of their sequential order. 

A logical fallacy that says that since event X happened before event Y, event X must have caused event Y

Ex: The rooster crows before the sunrise, therefore the sun rises because the rooster crows.

Red Herring

The deliberate inclusion of an idea or example to distract from the central argument. 

Ex:If a young person complains about the cost of college today, but instead their father points out how the food in colleges have improved and there was no food when he went. 

Slippery Slope

The idea that a course of action will inevitably lead to a disastrous chain of events.  

Ex: If we pass laws against fully-automatic weapons, it won’t be long before we pass laws on all weapons. Then, we will begin to restrict other rights, and we will end up living in a communist state. 

Straw man

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. A common tactic is to represent someone’s unpopular idea as the same idea that their opponent has. By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone's argument, it's much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine honest rational debate. 

Two wrongs don’t make a right

When a person attempts to justify an action against another person because the other person did take or would take the same action against him or her.

Ex: A man attacks an employee who works near his desk for taking pens from him. Two wrongs don’t make a right.