psych exam 3

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards based on the memory processes and concepts covered in the lecture.

Memory

The retention of information or experiences over time.

Encoding

The process by which information gets into memory storage.

Storage

Holding on to the information for some period of time.

Retrieval

Getting the information out of storage to be used.

Selective Attention

Focusing on a specific aspect of an experience.

Divided Attention

Concentrating on more than one activity, which decreases encoding.

Multitasking

Dividing attention on three or more activities, often leading to poorer performance.

Levels of Processing

The idea that deeper processing of information results in better retention.

Self-Reference Effect

The tendency to remember information better when it is related to oneself.

Sensory Memory

The first stage of memory, where information enters through sensory systems.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory that lasts only a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory that lasts 2-4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

A limited capacity memory system that retains information for about 30 seconds.

Chunking

A method of improving short-term memory by grouping information into single units.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory.

Working Memory

A combination of short-term memory and attention, essential for cognitive tasks.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious memories that can be verbally communicated.

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific events or episodes.

Semantic Memory

General knowledge about the world.

Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory

Non-conscious memories for skills and learned procedures.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

Cues

Stimuli that aid in the retrieval of memories.

Primacy Effect

Better recall for information presented at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall for information presented at the end of a list.

Autobiographical Memories

Memories of one's own life experiences.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories of significant events usually associated with strong emotions.

Reconstructive Processing

The process of reconstructing memories, which can lead to inaccuracies.

Encoding Failure

When information never fully enters long-term memory.

Retrieval Failure

When information is stored in long-term memory but cannot be retrieved.

Proactive Interference

Older information interferes with the retrieval of new information.

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with the retrieval of old information.

Decay

Loss of memory due to the passage of time without usage.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Feeling of knowing something but being unable to retrieve it.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform intended actions in the future.

Amnesia

Loss of memory due to brain injury or trauma.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memory from the point of injury backward.

Anterograde Amnesia

Loss of the ability to form new memories after the point of injury.

what is motivation

generating and expending energy toward achieving or avoiding some outcome

what is intrinsic motivation

doing something because you enjoy it/find it interesting or rewards (ex. reading books because you enjoy it)

what is extrinsic motivation?

doing something because of an outside influence or external rewards, punishments, or rules (ex. cleaning room so you won’t get in trouble)

what is security motive?

The basic desire to feel safe, stable, and protected from danger or uncertainty. (ex. a college student chooses to stay in familiar places w a group of friends to feel safe)

What are groth motives?

The desire to develop, improve yourself, and reach your full potential. (ex. a student studies extra and takes challenging courses not just to pass, but to learn more and become better at their major)

What is a goal?

Things you think about and want to achieve to satisfy your needs or wants. (ex. wanting to get an A on your next test because you want to feel proud and do well in your class)

What is a need?

Something your body must have to survive. (ex. your body requires water/liquied when your’e dehydrated)

What is drive?

The uncomfortable feeling that pushes you to meet that need. (ex. feeling really thirsty, which makes you get up to go get a drink)

What is Auto-Motive Theory?

Being around things related to goal (like objects or people) can unconsciously trigger the goal and influence your behavior without you realizing it. (ex. seeing your gym shoes by the door when you wake up in the morning makes you more likely to go)

What is self-awareness theory?

Being aware of yourself and your actions, and comparing them to your goals or values. (ex. realizing you’ve been procrastinating and deciding to start studying because you know you should)

What is optimal arousal?

The best level of alertness or excitement where you perform your best (ex. before a test, you feel a little nervousness that helps you focus but too much anxiety might make you forget things)

What is social facilitation?

When the presence of other people improves your performance on simple or well-practiced tasks. (ex. running faster during a race because other people are watching or competing with you)

What is self regulation?

Your ability to control your thoughts, emotions, and actions so you can reach your goals. (ex. you feel like skipping studying, but you remind yourself of your goal, getting a good grade, and choose to study anyway)

What is affective forecasting?

predicting how you’ll feel in the future about something that might happen. (ex. you don’t try out for a sports team because you think you’ll feel extremely upset if you don’t make it, even though you’d probably get over it pretty quickly.

What is construal Level theory?

we think about things in more detail when they’re happening soon, and more generally when they’re far in the future (ex. at start of semester, “study for exams” feels simple and doable, but as you get closer to exam you realize how much work it is)

What is the Planning Fallacy?

We tend to underestimate how long things will take, especially for future tasks (you think an assignment will take 1 hr but it ends up taking 3)

What is an emotion?

A feeling that includes body reactions, facial expressions, and personal experience

What is arousal?

how activated or energized you feel (high + excited, nervous, energized. low + calm, relaxed, tired)

what is valence?

whether the emotion feels good or bad (positive affect: happy, excited. negative affect: unpleasant emotions like sad or anxious)

What is a stimulus?

something that happens in your environment (a situation or event)

what is primary appraisal?

Your body automatically reacts first with arousal (like increased heart rate), often before you realize what’s happening

What is secondary appraisal?

When your brain interprets what’s happening and gives that feeling a label based on your thoughts, memories, or culture. (ex. you realize a loud noise is fireworks, so you label that feeling as excitement instead of fear)

What are the primary emotions?

happy, sad, anger, surprise, disgust

What are secondary emotions?

variations of primary emotions (joy, anxiety) and combinations (astonishments) and includes social emotions (guilt, jealousy, pride)

What is self discrepancy theory?

People feel anxiety when they fall short of how they ought to be but feel sad when they fall short of how they ideally want to be

what is personality?

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving, together with psychological mechanisms that underlie those patterns

what are the big five (ocean)?

a trait approach that includes these things: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

what is openness to experience?

a person’s willingness to try new things and be accepting/seeking of new experiences (high scores tend to be more creative)

what is conscientiousness?

A person’s likelihood of being thorough, careful, and vigilant. (High scorers tend to have higher GPA and quality friendships)

what is extraversion?

how outgoing and sociable a person is (high scores tend to experience more gratitude and are more forgiving)

what is agreeableness?

how easygoing, friendly, and likable a person is (high scores tend to have more successful romantic relationships)

what is neuroticism?

generally being prone to negative emotions (anxiety, sadness, and mood swings) as opposed to being more relaxed and optimistic)

where do personality traits come from?

Genetics (nature) give us basic tendencies like temperament, while our environment (nurture), including upbringing, culture, and experiences shapes how those traits develop over time.

Do People Behave Consistently Across Situations and Over Time?

People show consistency in personality across situations and overtime, but behavior can still change depending on context

Behavior is jointly determined by what three things?

Experience, personality, and present situational factors

what is working memories?

combination of short term memory and attention, let’s us hold info while doing cognitive tasks.

what is a phonological loop?

stores speech/language info briefly (ex. repeating a phone number in your head)

what is visuo-spacial sketchpad?

stores visual and spatial info (ex. remembering a route on a map)

what is central executive?

controls and coordinates the two system, integrates info from STM and longterm memory, and monitors attention (ex. focusing on reading while ignoring background noise)

what is other race effect?

the tendency to recognize and remember faces of our own race better than faces of other races.

what is a memory trace?

physical change in the brain that represents a stored memory (ex. learning a song creates a pattern of neural activity tat can be reactivated when you remember it)

what is retrospective memory?

remembering past events or info (ex. recalling what you ate for breakfast yesterday

what is prospective memory?

remembering to do something in the future (ex. remembering to email your teacher after class)

what is shallow processing?

Focusing on the physical or perceptual features of information.

Example: Looking at the word “apple” and noticing only its font or color.

what is intermediate processing?

Giving the stimulus a label or name.

Example: Seeing the word “apple” and saying it aloud or thinking “fruit.”

what is deep processing?

Thinking about the meaning and forming connections with other memories (elaboration). Example: Seeing the word “apple” and remembering the time you went apple-picking with friends.

what is self reference effect?

Relating material to yourself to improve memory.

Example: Learning the term “prosocial behavior” by thinking about a time you helped a friend.