PSYCHOLOGY: Approaches

Who was Wundt?

'Founding father of psychology'
Developed the first modern technique of 'Introspection'

When did Wundt open the first psychology laboratory?

1897 in Leipzig, Germany

What is Introspection?

the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes

How was Introspection used?

-Pps would receive standardised instructions, so the experiment could be replicated
-Pps were asked to focus on an everyday object or complete a simple task whilst looking 'inwards'
-A metronome would be ticking to keep the experiments 'standardised' - This is was an early attempt at scientific method

Evaluation of Wundt

-First attempt at using a scientific and standardised method
-Each pps experience was unique, results would vary for each pp, therefore making it inappropriate to generalise these personal experiences as the 'general laws of behaviour'

What does the scientific method include?

-Objectivity
-Replicability
-Empirical Methods
-Theory construction

What do behaviourist believe humans are born as?

Tabula rasa - blank slate

What is classical conditioning?

Behaviour that is learned through association

What is operant conditioning?

Behaviour that is learned through consequences.

What are the four stages of classical conditioning (as per conditioning grid)?

-Before conditioning
-Before conditioning
-During conditioning
-After conditioning

Using Pavlov's dogs, how would each factor be labelled?

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - Food
Unconditioned response (UCR) - Salivation
Neutral stimulus (NR) - Bell
Neutral response (NR) - No response
Conditioned stimulus (CR) - Bell
Conditioned response (CR) - Salivation

Pavlov's dogs - classical conditioning

-Hungry dog salivated by seeing the food. This was a reflex response and required no conditioning
-Pavlov paired the UCS with the NS, the bell
-After a few repeats, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell, as it expected food.

Pavlov's dogs - conclusions

Behaviour can be learned through association

What are the three types of operant conditioning?

-Positive reinforcement
-Negative reinforcement
-Punishment

What is positive reinforcement?

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed I.e praise, food, respect - strengthens behaviour

What is negative reinforcement?

A behaviour results in something unpleasant being removed from the situation i.e pain, criticism, noise - strengthens behaviour

What is punishment?

Something unpleasant is introduced and something pleasurable is taken away - weakens behaviour

Skinner's rats - operant conditioning

-Positive reinforcement: Placed a hungry rat in a box, who would learn to repeatedly press a lever to receive food
-Negative reinforcement: Electric shocks or loud noise now came if the lever was not pressed, rat learned to press the lever
-Punishment: Lever now administered electric shocks, rat learnt to not press the lever
ALL LEARNT THROUGH TRIAL AND ERROR

Evaluation of behaviourist approach

-Scientific, observable and repeatable
-Applied to treat phobias and Schizophrenia
-Nurture, partial understanding of human behaviours, but does not account for biological factors

What is the SLT?

-Identification of a role model, who you see similar qualities in or admire
-Imitation, by which you copy their behaviour

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Learning through the consequences of others, particularly of role models

What are meditational processes?

A - attention, behaviour of role model is observed
R - retention, we remember that behaviour and its consequences
M - motor reproduction, we consider whether we can imitate these actions
M - motivation, we are driven to behaviour if it has some kind of positive reward

Badura's Bobo Doll - Vicarious reinforcement

-Children saw an adult (role model) behave aggressively towards a Bobo doll.
-One group saw the adult get rewarded and one saw the adult being scolded
-The children who saw the violent behaviour being rewarded then expressed similar aggression at the toys in the playroom
-The children learnt from the behaviour, expecting a similar reward.

Evaluation of the SLT

-Scientific, observable and repeatable
BUT! ARMM is not observable, so partial
-Social leaning therapy, positive behaviour is modelled
-Allows a look into influence of outside sources, like TV on behaviour
-Nurture, emphasis on EXTERNAL factors
BUT! Only limited as some biological factors do matter e.g more aggression in boys due to testosterone

What is the cognitive approach?

-Internal mental processes
-Schemas
Idea of measurable cognitive process

What are internal mental processes?

'Private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.

What are schemas?

a concept or framework that organises and interprets information i.e when you see a dog, the schema for dog will be accessed and all info about dogs will be readily available.

Evaluation of Cognitive Approach

-Scientific, to an extent as use of lab experiments, but not physically observable
-Cognitive behavioural therapy, challenging negative beliefs = challenging negative thoughts

Influence of genes on behaviour?

-Belief that some genes are connected to certain conditions, e.g SERT to OCD
-Some conditions chances of developing can be greatly increased for blood relations, i.e 50% chance for identical twin to develop Schizophrenia if one develops it.

Influence of brain structure on behaviour?

-Damage to certain parts of the brain can affect behaviour i.e frontal lobe controlling personality, suggesting physical cause for behaviour

Influence of neurochemistry on behaviour?

-Chemical processes have influence of behaviour i.e
Low serotonin linked to OCD
High dopamine linked to Schizophrenia

Evaluation of the biological approach

-Scientific, observable and heavy use of lab experiments and case studies
-Use in drug therapy, making it VALUABLE!
-Nature, focus on biology
BUT! only partial as environmental factors not accounted for.

What us the tripartite personality?

Id - pleasure principle, selfish and requires instant gratification
Ego - reality principle, moral compass
Superego - morality principle, strict and rule-abiding

What are Defence Mechanisms?

Repression - forcing memory out of mind
Denial - refusing to acknowledge
Displacement - playing true feelings onto a neutral object

What are the Psychosexual stages?

Oral stage (0-1) - smoking, biting nails, sarcasm
Anal stage (1-3):
Retentive - anxiety, perfectionism and cheap
Expulsive - messy, disorganised, indulgent
Phallic (3-5) - narcissism, jealousy, anxiety
Latency (6-11) - period of calm, where previous conflicts are forgotten
Genital stage (12+) - sexual series become conscious

Evaluation of the Psychodynamic Approach

-Unscientific, unobservable and specific
-Unfalsifiable, cannot prove what is happening is happening, as is an internal process
-Psychoanalysis, talking therapy to access the unconscious
-Unique, new idea of the unconscious mind
-Pessimistic, focus on the past, unchangeable characteristics
-Use of 'post hoc' provides good 'predictive validity'

What is the idea behind Maslow's hierarchy of needs?

-Maslow proposed that behaviour is based on the individual striving for personal growth and fulfilment of needs.

What are the layers in Maslow's hierarchy (bottom up)?

1. Physiological needs - food, water etc
2. Safety - security of life
3. Love/Belonging - friendship, family etc
4. Esteem - self-esteem, confidence, achievement
5. Self-acutalisation - morality, creativity and acceptance of facts

What is self-actualisation?

The 'peak' of the hierarchy, when we achieve the best we can possibly be.

What is congruence?

When there is an alignment between one's self-concept and ideal self

What is the Self-Concept?

How we view ourselves, our identity, personality, characteristics, likes and dislikes etc.

What is the Ideal Self?

Who we would like to be.

What is conditional love?

When certain 'conditions' must be met in order to receive affection.

What is unconditional love?

No conditions must be met in order to receive love

Evaluation of the humanist approach

-Unscientific, unobservable and personal
-Client Centred Therapy, encouraged to develop positive regard for oneself, as well as use of word 'client' to boost esteem.
-Unique, new ideas on human emotions and needs
-'Positive' approach, focus on becoming improved and leaving mistakes in the past.
-Cultural bias, individualistic vs collectivist cultures