key terms period 4

Adams–Onís Treaty (1819)

This treaty between the U.S. and Spain, negotiated by John Quincy Adams, gave Florida to the United States.
It also set the boundary between Spanish territory and the U.S. all the way to the Pacific.
The deal helped solidify American claims to western lands and ended lingering border disputes.
Spain agreed because it was struggling to control its colonies amid revolutions in Latin America.
It reflected growing U.S. expansionism and the Monroe administration’s confidence in foreign affairs.

American System (early 1800s)

Proposed by Henry Clay, the American System aimed to strengthen the national economy through tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements.
It sought to make the U.S. economically independent from Europe after the War of 1812.
The system promoted manufacturing in the North, farming in the West, and trade across regions.
While popular with nationalists, it drew criticism from the South, which opposed protective tariffs.
Ultimately, it shaped debates about federal power and sectional balance throughout the era.

Barbary Pirates (1801–1805)

The Barbary Pirates operated off the North African coast, seizing U.S. ships and demanding tribute.
When President Jefferson refused to pay, it led to the First Barbary War.
American naval forces fought to protect U.S. commerce and assert national strength.
The conflict tested the young nation’s ability to defend its interests abroad.
It boosted U.S. confidence and helped establish the Navy’s reputation early in the 19th century.

Battle of New Orleans (1815)

Fought at the end of the War of 1812, this battle made Andrew Jackson a national hero.
It occurred after the Treaty of Ghent was signed but before news of it reached the U.S.
American forces defeated a much larger British army near New Orleans.
The victory gave Americans a huge morale boost and fueled postwar nationalism.
It helped launch Jackson’s political career and symbolized U.S. independence and resilience.

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)

This Supreme Court case involved the Cherokee Nation’s attempt to resist Georgia’s encroachment on their land.
Chief Justice John Marshall ruled the Cherokees were a “domestic dependent nation,” not a foreign power.
That meant they couldn’t sue Georgia in federal court.
Although it didn’t protect Cherokee sovereignty, it acknowledged their distinct political identity.
The decision was part of the larger struggle over Native rights and removal under Andrew Jackson.

Corrupt Bargain (1824)

The term refers to the disputed presidential election of 1824.
No candidate won a majority, so the House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams over Andrew Jackson.
When Adams made Henry Clay his Secretary of State, Jackson’s supporters accused them of striking a corrupt deal.
The controversy split the Democratic-Republican Party into rival factions.
It fueled Jackson’s campaign for 1828 and deepened distrust of political elites.

Cotton Gin (1793)

Invented by Eli Whitney, the cotton gin revolutionized cotton production by quickly separating seeds from fiber.
It made cotton highly profitable and expanded plantation agriculture across the South.
This, in turn, increased the demand for enslaved labor, deepening the entrenchment of slavery.
The invention linked the Southern economy to Northern industry and international trade.
It symbolized both innovation and the tragic expansion of slavery in the early republic.

Declaration of Sentiments (1848)

Written at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York, this document was modeled after the Declaration of Independence.
It demanded equal rights for women, including suffrage.
Leaders like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott highlighted gender inequality in law and society.
The declaration marked the formal beginning of the women’s rights movement in the U.S.
It reflected the reformist spirit of the antebellum period, inspired by the Second Great Awakening.

Embargo Act (1807)

Passed under President Jefferson, the Embargo Act banned American trade with all foreign nations.
It was meant to pressure Britain and France to respect U.S. neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars.
Instead, it devastated the American economy, especially in New England.
The act led to widespread smuggling and political backlash.
Its failure showed the limits of economic coercion and the tensions between ideals and practicality in Jefferson’s presidency.

Erie Canal (completed 1825)

The Erie Canal connected the Hudson River to Lake Erie, linking the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes.
Built in New York, it drastically reduced transportation costs and spurred westward expansion.
The canal turned New York City into the nation’s leading trade hub.
It symbolized the rise of internal improvements and the Market Revolution.
The success inspired other states to invest in canals and infrastructure projects.

Force Bill (1833)

The Force Bill was passed during the Nullification Crisis under Andrew Jackson.
It authorized the president to use military force to ensure states complied with federal tariffs.
The bill targeted South Carolina, which had declared the Tariff of 1828 and 1832 null and void.
It demonstrated Jackson’s commitment to preserving the Union over states’ defiance.
Though never used, it symbolized the growing tension between federal authority and states’ rights.

Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)

The Haitian Revolution was a successful slave uprising that overthrew French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue.
It terrified slaveholders in the American South and inspired enslaved people seeking freedom.
The revolution led to Haiti’s independence and disrupted Napoleon’s colonial ambitions.
This indirectly encouraged him to sell the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803.
It reshaped Atlantic politics and deepened American anxieties about slavery and rebellion.

Hartford Convention (1814–1815)

Held in Connecticut, the Hartford Convention gathered Federalists angry about the War of 1812.
They discussed grievances and even hinted at secession, opposing Madison’s Democratic-Republican policies.
The war’s end and American victory made the Federalists look unpatriotic.
Their decline followed soon after, marking the end of the party.
It showed how regional tensions could threaten national unity long before the Civil War.

Hudson River School (1820s–1850s)

This was an art movement centered on romantic landscape paintings of the American wilderness.
Artists like Thomas Cole and Asher Durand celebrated nature’s beauty and divine spirit.
Their work reflected growing nationalism and pride in America’s natural landscapes.
It aligned with the Transcendentalist emphasis on nature and spirituality.
The movement helped shape the cultural identity of the young republic during westward expansion.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

Signed by President Andrew Jackson, this law authorized the relocation of Native tribes east of the Mississippi to lands in the West.
It targeted groups like the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole Nations.
The policy ignored Supreme Court rulings protecting Native sovereignty.
It led to the forced migration known as the Trail of Tears, which killed thousands.
The act symbolized the darker side of Jacksonian democracy and Manifest Destiny.

Judicial Review (established 1803)

Judicial review is the Supreme Court’s power to declare laws unconstitutional.
It was established by Marbury v. Madison, decided under Chief Justice John Marshall.
This gave the judicial branch equal footing with the executive and legislative branches.
It strengthened federal power and shaped the Court’s role in American government.
Judicial review became a cornerstone of constitutional law and national supremacy.

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806)

Commissioned by President Jefferson after the Louisiana Purchase, this expedition explored the newly acquired western lands.
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark mapped routes, catalogued species, and built relations with Native tribes.
Their guide, Sacagawea, helped them navigate and communicate.
The journey confirmed the U.S. claim to the Oregon Territory and encouraged westward migration.
It symbolized exploration, scientific curiosity, and national expansion.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

The U.S. bought the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, doubling the nation’s size.
Napoleon sold it after failing to reconquer Haiti and needing money for European wars.
Jefferson faced constitutional doubts about the purchase but proceeded for national benefit.
It secured control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans for American trade.
The acquisition fueled Manifest Destiny and sectional debates over the expansion of slavery.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

This landmark Supreme Court case arose when William Marbury sued for his commission as a judge.
Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional.
The decision denied Marbury’s appointment but established judicial review.
It strengthened the Supreme Court’s authority to interpret the Constitution.
The case marked a turning point in defining checks and balances in the U.S. government.

Market Revolution (early–mid 1800s)

The Market Revolution transformed the U.S. economy from local trade to a national commercial network.
New technologies—like the telegraph, steamboat, and railroads—linked regions and expanded markets.
It spurred urbanization, industrialization, and wage labor while reshaping gender and family roles.
Farmers grew for profit instead of subsistence, and factory work rose in the North.
While it boosted prosperity, it also widened class divides and reinforced slavery in the South.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Maryland tried to tax the Second Bank of the United States, but the Supreme Court blocked it.
Chief Justice Marshall ruled that Congress had implied powers under the “necessary and proper” clause.
He also affirmed that states couldn’t tax federal institutions.
The case strengthened federal supremacy and supported the constitutionality of the national bank.
It reflected the nationalist tone of the Marshall Court during the Era of Good Feelings.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

This deal, brokered by Henry Clay, admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state.
It kept the balance of power in the Senate between free and slave states.
Slavery was banned north of the 36°30′ line in the Louisiana Territory.
The compromise temporarily eased sectional tensions but exposed deep divisions over slavery.
It foreshadowed future conflicts leading up to the Civil War.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

Made by President James Monroe, this doctrine warned European powers not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere.
It declared the Americas off-limits for new colonization and promised U.S. neutrality in European affairs.
The policy reflected rising American nationalism and the desire to assert hemispheric influence.
Though the U.S. lacked the power to enforce it at the time, Britain’s navy helped deter European action.
It later became a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy and justified future American interventions.

Nat Turner Rebellion (1831)

Nat Turner, an enslaved preacher in Virginia, led a violent revolt that killed around 60 white people.
The rebellion terrified slaveholders and led to harsh crackdowns on enslaved and free Black people.
Southern states passed stricter slave codes and censored abolitionist ideas.
Turner’s rebellion deepened sectional tensions over slavery and race.
It also strengthened both pro-slavery defenses in the South and abolitionist resolve in the North.

Nullification Crisis (1832–1833)

South Carolina, led by John C. Calhoun, declared the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void.
They argued that states could reject unconstitutional federal laws.
President Jackson saw this as treason and threatened force through the Force Bill.
A compromise tariff by Henry Clay eventually defused the conflict.
The crisis highlighted the clash between states’ rights and federal authority—an early prelude to the Civil War.

Panic of 1819

This was the first major U.S. financial crisis, triggered by the Second Bank of the United States tightening credit.
Falling crop prices, land speculation, and bad loans led to widespread foreclosures and unemployment.
It hit farmers and western settlers especially hard.
The panic ended the post–War of 1812 economic boom and the “Era of Good Feelings.”
It fueled resentment toward banks and elites, feeding support for Jacksonian democracy.

Panic of 1839

Following the destruction of the Second Bank and speculation in western lands, the economy collapsed again.
Martin Van Buren inherited the disaster after Jackson left office.
Banks failed, businesses closed, and unemployment soared nationwide.
The crisis marked the end of the economic boom of the 1830s.
It weakened the Democrats and helped the Whig Party rise to prominence.

Second Bank of the United States (1816–1836)

Chartered after the War of 1812, this national bank stabilized currency and managed government funds.
It became the center of a fierce political battle when President Jackson accused it of corruption and elitism.
Jackson vetoed its recharter and withdrew federal deposits, leading to the “Bank War.”
Supporters saw the Bank as vital for stability; critics saw it as undemocratic.
Its destruction destabilized the economy and contributed to the Panic of 1839.

Spoils System (1829 onward)

Introduced by Andrew Jackson, the spoils system rewarded political supporters with government jobs.
Jackson argued it democratized politics by rotating officeholders.
Critics said it encouraged corruption and incompetence.
The system reflected the rise of mass democracy and the power of party loyalty.
It became a defining feature of Jacksonian politics and persisted for decades.

Tariff of Abominations (1828)

This high protective tariff angered the South, which relied on imported goods and foreign trade.
It benefited Northern manufacturers but hurt Southern planters.
Southerners denounced it as unconstitutional and economically oppressive.
Vice President John C. Calhoun led protests, developing the doctrine of nullification.
The controversy deepened sectional divisions and set the stage for the Nullification Crisis.

Temperance Movement (1820s–1840s)

This reform movement sought to curb alcohol consumption, which was blamed for poverty and domestic violence.
Led largely by women and church groups, it reflected moral reform and social discipline.
The American Temperance Society helped spread the message nationwide.
It tied into the broader reform spirit of the Second Great Awakening.
Eventually, temperance became a foundation for later prohibition movements.

Trail of Tears (1838–1839)

Following the Indian Removal Act, the Cherokee Nation was forcibly relocated from Georgia to present-day Oklahoma.
Thousands died from disease, starvation, and exposure along the way.
Despite Supreme Court rulings in their favor, the federal government enforced removal.
The Trail of Tears symbolized the suffering caused by American expansionism.
It remains one of the darkest chapters in U.S. history during the Jacksonian era.

Transcendentalism (1830s–1840s)

This philosophical and literary movement emphasized intuition, nature, and individual conscience.
Leaders like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau urged self-reliance and spiritual growth.
It arose partly as a reaction against industrialization and materialism.
Transcendentalists believed humans could transcend reason through connection with nature and the divine.
The movement influenced reform, literature, and America’s emerging cultural identity.

Treaty of Ghent (1814)

The Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain.
It restored prewar boundaries but didn’t address issues like impressment or trade restrictions.
Still, it was celebrated as a diplomatic success after the Battle of New Orleans.
The war’s end ushered in the Era of Good Feelings and renewed nationalism.
The treaty marked the U.S. as a respected, independent power on the world stage.

Utopian Societies (1820s–1840s)

These were experimental communities aiming to create ideal societies apart from mainstream America.
Examples include Brook Farm, the Shakers, and New Harmony.
They sought to eliminate inequality and moral corruption through shared labor and reform.
Many were inspired by Transcendentalism, socialism, and religious revival.
Though most failed, they reflected the reform energy and idealism of antebellum America.

War of 1812 (1812–1815)

Fought between the U.S. and Britain, this war stemmed from British impressment of American sailors and interference with U.S. trade.
The U.S. also aimed to defend national honor and possibly expand into Canada.
Key battles included the burning of Washington D.C. and the Battle of New Orleans.
Though the Treaty of Ghent ended it in a draw, Americans saw it as a “second war for independence.”
It fostered nationalism, weakened Native resistance, and ended the Federalist Party’s influence.

John C. Calhoun (1782–1850)

A South Carolina politician and fierce advocate of states’ rights, Calhoun served as vice president under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson.
He developed the doctrine of nullification, arguing that states could reject unconstitutional federal laws.
Originally a nationalist, he shifted to defend Southern interests and slavery as “positive good.”
Calhoun played a central role in the Nullification Crisis and sectional debates of the 1830s.
His ideas foreshadowed the secessionist arguments that led to the Civil War.

John Marshall (1755–1835)

As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Marshall greatly strengthened the power of the federal government.
Through decisions like Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden, he expanded judicial authority.
He championed nationalism and the supremacy of federal law over state law.
Marshall’s rulings promoted a stable environment for business and the national economy.
His leadership established the Court as a coequal branch of government with lasting influence.

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882)

A leading Transcendentalist writer and philosopher, Emerson emphasized self-reliance, individualism, and harmony with nature.
His essays, such as “Self-Reliance” and “Nature,” inspired Americans to trust their inner voice.
He encouraged intellectual and spiritual independence from Europe’s influence.
Emerson’s ideas shaped 19th-century reform movements and American literature.
He became a guiding voice for the nation’s emerging cultural and philosophical identity.

Sacagawea

A Shoshone woman who served as interpreter and guide for the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
She helped the explorers navigate the Rocky Mountains and establish peaceful contact with Native tribes.
Her presence symbolized cooperation and trust between Native Americans and the expedition.
Sacagawea’s knowledge of geography and diplomacy was vital to the journey’s success.
She became a lasting symbol of exploration, courage, and women’s contributions to American history.

Samuel F.B. Morse (1791–1872)

Morse invented the telegraph and developed Morse code, revolutionizing long-distance communication.
His invention allowed messages to be sent instantly across great distances.
The telegraph became essential to the Market Revolution, linking regions and accelerating commerce.
Morse’s technology transformed journalism, business, and warfare.
He embodied the inventive spirit and technological progress of the early 19th century.