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retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
retrieval cues
stimuli that help people get information from long-term memory… think of these cues like “search terms” one would use on an internet search engine or “clues” to help find your stored memories
context-dependent memory
recall is stronger when a subject is present in the same environment in which the original memory was formed
mood-congruent memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
state-dependent memory
memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
metacognition
cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.
forgetting curve
a diagram that shows the initial drop in retention of info & evens out over time
encoding failure
we cannot remember what we did not encode
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
inability to recall a word or idea while knowing it is in your memory
repression (psychodynamic)
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
misinformation effect
occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). __________, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
constructive memory
a psychological concept that analyzes how the brain creates memories
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory.
imagination inflation
memory distortion that occurs when someone imagines an event that never happened and then becomes more confident that it actually happened. this can lead to a false memory that the event actually occurred
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
g (general intelligence)
according to spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). on contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.
chronological age
the measure of a human’s actual physical age measured in years. you can also think of it as the answer to the question, "how old are you?"
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
construct validity
how much a test measures a concept or trait.
predictive validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (also called criterion-related validity)
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.
test-retest reliability
using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency
split-half reliability
dividing the test into two parts, testing each part on the same students but on different days, and comparing scores
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
stereotype lift
a performance boost that occurs when downward comparisons are made with a denigrated outgroup
flynn effect
the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures.
achievement tests
a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
aptitude tests
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
fixed mindset
the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.
growth mindset
a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed.
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