Unit 5 Ap Psychology

Memory

• learning that persists over time

• information and or experiences that are encoded, stored and retrieved

Rehearsal

repetition of incoming information

Eideic Memory

rare ability in some people to recall images and sounds after short exposure.

Multistore model of memory

Information moves through multiple stores

Atikinson and Shiffrin’s Information-processing Model

Similar to sequential computer processing

• 3 stage model of memory

  1. sensory

  2. short term (STM)

  3. long term (LTM)

Baddeley

revised short-term memory, where we actively process information

• working information

• STM is like a shelf used temporarily

Information processing model ( 3 stage model

stimuli →

Sensory Memory (Iconic < 1s) (Echoic1-3s) →

attention→

Working/ Short-term Memory (30s) (7±2 items)

• Miller

• maintenance rehearsal

encoding →

Long-term memory 30s

• capacity is unlimited

Sensory memory

brief high capacity store

Two types:

1. iconic 1s: visual

2. echoic 1-3s: sound

Working/ short term memory

lower capacity 30s

hold up to 7± 2 items

Maintenance rehearsal

Try to hold on to something in working memory

Like saying it in your head

Long Term Memory

By encoding information

unlimited

anything over 30 seconds

take it out by retrieval

Encoding

Put something in your long term memory

Retrieval

Take something out long term memory to working memory

two types

• Recognition

• Recall

Recognition

Identify previous learning

ex. Mcq of Ap exam

Recall

Retrieving or pulling out previous learning, decline with age

ex. giving a definition

Relearning

Improved retrieval with repeated learning

ex studying after three practice assignment for quicker retrieval

Overlearning

Practicing a skill to make it more resilient to forgetting

ex. after getting correct answers in a math assignments practice for 10 more minutes

Retrieval Cues

Serve as connection points to access a memory, such as smell, sounds, or visual elements.

Priming

Retrieval Cue

Activation of memory associations, sometimes unconscious

previous exposures may influence future thoughts

Context Dependent Memory

retrieval Cue

revisiting location of an experience

ex. you go into the kitchen for tape fut forget, when you come bak you see the ripped paper and remember

State Dependent memory

Retrieval Cue

What we experience in one state like a headache could be remembered better the next time we are in that state.

ex: mood congruent memories

Shallow Processing

little elaboration with a focus on superficial and or perceptual elements

superficial, less effective

ex. encoding a word by the type of font it is written with

Deep processing

focus on the meaning with deeper elaboration

semantic endocoding

ex. encoding a word by the meaning and connecting it o previous learning

leads to better retention

Visual encoding

encode by visual elements

ex.

Acustic encoding

encode by sound

ex. rhymes with

Semantic encoding

encode by meaning

used in deep processing

ex. what category does it belong to ?

Massed practice

Spacing effect

Try to encode all at one

ex. cramming

Distributed practice

Spacing effect

encode over multiple time periods; the longer the better

ex. daily review sessions

Spacing effect

Distributed practice → long term retention unlike massed practice

Testing Effect

retrieving info for assessments like practice tests

more powerful for memory than restudying and rereading

Serial Position effect

The middle items are the least remebered

Recency effect

last items in a list are remembered best after seen

probably because still in working memory

Primacy effect

The first items in a list are remembered best

probably lasting effect on long term memory

Chunking

organizing effect

clustering items into units, especially is meaningful

ex number chunks in phone number

Mnemonics

organizing effect

Memory devices that use association or imagery to remember

ex keyword

Hirchies

organizing effect

Creating categories with subdivisions

Serial Processing

Only one process occurs at any given time, one after another

Parallel Processing

Multiple tracks of brain processes occurring at the same time

not the same as multitasking

two types:

• effortful processing

• Automatic processing

ex. after walking and discussing something you remember temperature, time pasees, key points, etc.

Effortful Processing

explicit declarative memories like experiences and facts

explained through 3-stage model

Automatic Processing

Implicit non declarative memories encoded unconsciously

Like time, space, and frequency

include procedural memory and classical conditioning

Dual track memory system

How do we forget?

1. encoding: something is in our working memory but didn’t link memory to go to long term

2. storage decay

3. retrival failure

Storage decay

When a memory gets old therefore, it decays

Ebbunghoys forgetuc curev (1885)

• memorized nonsense syllables like bix, lom

• steep drop-off of recall initially, then levels out

Retrieval failure

when something is in our long term memory but we fail to retrieve it.

tip of the tongue phenomenon

stored but not accessible

can affect prospective memory ( looking back at previous info) or

ProsPective memory

Prospective memory

• memory to do with something in the future

• may be assisted with retrieval cues

• like remembering to take daily medicine when looking at the medicine cabinet

Interference

some information blocks the recall of other info

two types

• retroactive

• proactive

Pro active interference

• forward acting

• prior information disrupts learning new information

• while trying to learn new language old language interferes

Retroactive interference

• backward-acting

• new learning disrupts old information

• when speaking old language new language keeps coming up

Amnesia

Temporary of permanent loss of memory types

• retrograde

• antograde

• Source

Retrograde Amnesia

• inability to remember past information or experiences

• procedures remain intact, like walking

• ex. blow to the head that leads to forgetting recent events

Anterograde amnesia

• inability to form new memories

• involves the Hippocampus

  ex. HM got his hippocampus removed and was not able to form new memories

Source Amnesia

• attributing an experience to the wrong source

• ex. telling a joke to someone who told it to you

How to improve memory

• make meaningful links and associations

• distributed practice

• activate retrieval cues

• testing effect

• chunking

• mnemonic

• sleep

Long Term potentiation

• Increased efficiency in the synapse when repeatedly stimulated

• neuron needs less activation

• more connections between neurons

• lasts from hours to weeks

Biology of Memory

Changes happen at a cellular level in the brain when learning happens

Long term potentiation

biology of Explicit memory

• Memories of experiences and facts

• associated with the hippocampus and frontal lobe

• Hippocampus= hub through which complex neural memory networks are stored

biology of Implicit memories

• memory for procedures, conditioning, and timing

• cerebellum associated with classical conditioning.

• basal ganglia in the deep brain associated with procedural motor skills. like riding a bike

Emotional memory

• the limbic system is the center of the emotion in the brain including hippocampus and amygdala

Flashbulb memory

• not immune to alteration

• usually very personal experience.

• like a first kiss

• can be shared

• more resistant to decay

Structures of thought

• concept

• prototype

• exemplar

• artificial concepot

Concept

Cluster of raw cognitive material

you either forget ut or join it with another piece of cognitive iinformation.

Prototype

a great, abstract example

not perfect but great

like when you think of a dog, you think of a labrador retriever

Exemplar

a great example from experience

but the experience is limited

like you are going to think about a dog you have met

Artificial Concept

a perfcet example

rare in real life

Functions of thoughts ( problem solving

Informal reasoning

fast thinking

thinking is slow when trying to evaluate multiple possibilities

we use

• heuristics

• top-down processing: already knowing about situation before having all details

• schema: set of ideas used to view problem

• mental seT

• mental model

Formal reasoning

slow thinking

allows us to be sure of our answer, to lower the p-value

we use

• algorithm

• bottom-up processing: gathering many bits of data before conclusion

• syllogism

• artificial intelligence

Heuristics

thinking shortcuts based on experience

can lead us to the wrong answer

they are not always bad and are useful

process that leads to cognitive bias

• representative

• availability

• anchoring bias

• confirmation bias

• hindsight bias

Mental set

similar to schema. way of thinking that has worked before

Mental model

Way of thinking about how things interact

Algorithm

Step by step process 1+__= 10

Syllogism

Using logic. if a=b and b=c them a=c. can be improved with practice

Diagnosis

Eliminate all wrong answers to get correct

Artificial Intelligence

Similar to algorithm. Facial recognition, auto-complete, or self driving cares use step by step processes to find patterns.

Cognitive biases

Result of using an imperfect thinking strategy

these results can be used to create even more wrong answers

there are many

• fixedness

• framing effect

• illusory correlation

• functional fixedness

• belief perseverance

Concrete

examples not definitions

true understanding of concepts

Representativeness heuristic

Thinking that a new thing that has few characteristics of a schema, will fit nicely into that schema

Stereotyping

Availability heuristic

When strategy easily comes to mind

many students when they are stuck use study techniques that easily pop into they mind and don’t think about other strategies.

Anchoring bias

powerful emotional thought weighs down the rest of the minds

Confirmation bias

we watch and subscribe to things that support our oppinions

Hindsight bias

“i knew it all along”

before an event we are unsure of the outcome. after the outcome we think we did know it.

Fixedness

Not being able to se the problem from a different point of view

Framing effect

Words matter. How a problem is presented influences how we think

Illusory correlation

Just because things happen near each other does not mean there is a connection. Circumstantial evidence.

Funcional Fixedness

Not being able to see than an object can be used in different ways

Belief perseverance

Even when presented concrete evidence to the contrary, a person will hold their beliefs

Intelligence

opperantional definition:

• abrstract

• operationalized

Abstract Intelligence

• Intelligence is the ability to think creatively

• intelligence is the ability to apply knowledge to new situations

Operationalized intelligence

• traditional tests were verbal tests

• easy to grade and compara

• Reductionism- reduce a concept like intelligence to a concept

Psychometrics

Measuring the minds

Speed of processing

easily measured and does seem to be correlated with intelligence

Fluid Intelligence

related to speed of processing

Fluid intelligence is your ability to process new information, learn, and solve problems

Crystalized Intelligence

heuristics

as we age we are slower

Crystallized intelligence is your stored knowledge, accumulated over the years.

Flynn Effects

over time, the average IQ of society rises

means that some tests need to be recalibrated

Savant Syndrome

Genius ability in a very narrow area

• like being able to multiply large numbers instantly

• It is related to Autism Spectrum Disorder

• not all people with autism have savant and vise versa

Stereotype threat

members of a group who are thought to be “less than” in certain areas will often perform worse in that area than the members of a different group.

it is a confounding variable

Single Blind

to expose ST

intelligence testing

1. get a representative sample

2. Do not tell them that it is an intelligence test, have them take the test

3. Analyze the results and Racial differences will disappear.

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

• First one to think that intelligence can be quantified. Psychometrics

• his method, like Wundt’s introspection, wasn’t able to support his ideas

• he wanted to correlate reaction times with intelligence

• Charles Darwin Cousin

• Believed in Eugenics,

• believed that success was due to inherited mental traits

• better people should have many children and less-able shouldn’t

Alfred Binet (1857-1911)

• came up with the first test to classify mental abilities

• originally used to help French schools identify children who are behind

• gathered a lot of information about the abilities of children at each age. figured out what was normal for a child to do.

• came up with mental age and Chronological age

MA/CA x 100= IQ 8/8 ×100= 100 (100 was the mean)

• test was called the Binet-Simon test because he had a partner named Theodore Simon