Anatomy and Physiology Semester A final

tomy

to cut

ana

apart

two types of anatomy

gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy

Gross Anatomy

large structures, easily observable

Microscopic Anatomy

structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

Physiology

the study of how the body and its parts work or function

Anatomists__________ structure

observe

physiologists....

experiment

6 levels of structural organization (in order from smallest to greatest)

atoms/chemicals, cells, tissues , organs, organ system, and organism

number of organ systems in the body

11

integumentary system

the external covering of the body, or the skin

integumentary system Functions

protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication

skeletal system

bones, artilages, ligaments and joints

Function of skeletal system

support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell production(hematopoiesis)

Muscular system function

Contract or shorten to move skeleton
Maintains posture
Produces heat

Nervous system

Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors

nervous system functions

Speedy control system that responds to external stimuli (Light
Sound
Temperature changes
Pain
Pressure) assesses information and responds by activating appropriate effector

endocrine system

series of glands that slowly control body by producing and releasing hormones for growth, metabolism, and reproduction

glands of the endocrine system

Pituitary,
Thyroid,
Parathyroid,
Adrenal,
Thymus,
Pancreas,
Pineal ,
Ovaries (females),
Testes (males)

cardiovascular system

heart and blood vessels

Cardiovacular System Function

Work together to transport materials in blood
(Nutrients, Hormones, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, and Waste

lymphatic system

Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, and tonsils

function of lymphatic system

Returns fluid leaked from blood back to blood vessels, and Lymph nodes (and others) help cleanse blood and store cells involved in immunity

respiratory system

Lungs, nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi

function of respiratory system

supplies the body with oxygen and disposes of carbon dioxide

digestive system

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, pancreas, and rectum

function of digestive system

break down and absorbs nutrients from food; removes waste; maintains water balance

urinary system

kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

function of urinary system

elimination of excess water, salts, and waste products; control of pH

Reproductive system

Male: testes, penis, accessory glands, and ducts

Females: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina

Fuction of Reproductive System

to produce offspring

healthy body must

maintain boundaries, move, respond, digest, excretion, reproduce, and grow

human body must have these five items to maintain the ight functions for living

nutrients, O2, water, core body temp, and standard atmospheric pressure

anatomical position

body standing erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at sides, and palms facing forward

Anterior

front of the body

Posterior

back

superior

toward the head

inferior

away from head; below

Medial

toward or at midline

lateral

away from midline

intermediate

between a more medial and more lateral structure

proximal

close to origin of body part or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

distal

farther from origin of a body part or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Superficial (external)

toward or at body surface

deep (internal)

away from body surface

Supine

lying face up

Prone

lying face down

midsagittal plane

left and right

frontal

anterior & posterior

transverse

top & bottom

Oblique

diagonal

body cavities

Dorsal side (posterior)
Ventral side (anterior)

dorsal cavity

ventral cavity

What are the nine regions of the abdomen?

right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal, hypogastric, left inguinal

homeostatsis

a state of physiological equilibrium or stability

Homeostatic imbalance is the ...what does this cause?

body is not functioning smoothly.. results in disease, distress, or even death

Chain reaction set of by homeostatic imbalance to restore equilibrium

Stimulus
(Produces change in variable)
Detection
(Change detected by receptor)
Input
(Information sent from receptor to control center)
Output
(Control center decides what action/response should be taken)
Response
(Action/response feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis)

Components of a Homeostatic Control Mechanism

receptor(afferent pathway), control center, effector

negative feedback

stimulus not welcomed; back to normal

positive feedback

stimulus desired; wants more; keep new change

almost all control mechanisms are ...

negative

Hypothalamus

located in brain, regulates body temperature

4 control mechanisms that are positive feedback

blood clotting, childbirth, breastfeeding, and protein digestion

What make sit more difficult to keep homeostasis?

aging

Characteristics of blood

fluid tissue(8% body weight), connective tissue made of formed elements (living and non-living plasma, Sticky, metallic (due to Fe), salty, opaque fluid, pH 7.35-7.45, 38°

bright red blood

- rich in oxygen and hemoglobin

dark red blood

oxygen poor

breakdown of blood

Plasma (55%) Hematocrit(45%), and Buffy coat (

Plasma

Liquid part of blood (90% water, salts(electrolytes), proteins, nutrients, wastes, gases, hormones)

Acidosis

too acidic

Alkalosis

too basic

regulates ph of blood

respiratory system and excretory system

red blood cells

erythrocytes

Neutrophils(WBC)

Granulocyte , Multi-lobed nucleus (usually 3), 40-70% of WBC (3,000-7,000/mm3), Active phagocytes - foreign invader EATERS, and in short-term infection, numbers increase rapidly to fight off invaders

Immature RBCs are called

reticulocytes

Characteristics of RBCs

most abundant, no nucleus, few organelles, hemoglobin caries 4 O2,(men have more than women)

White blood cells

leukocytes

Characteristics of WBCs

complete cells, diapedesis(Able to slip in & out of blood vessels to tissues & back), and chemotaxis(Locate tissue damage through chemical signals & move via ameboid motion)

Leukocytosis

>11,000 (sign of infection)

leukopenia (Rx drugs, anticancer agents)

Granulocytes

("the phils")
Contain granules

Agranulocytes

("the cytes")
No granules

Eosinophils

Granulocyte
Bi-lobed nucleus
1 - 4% of WBC (100 - 400/mm3)
Kills parasitic worms (tapeworms, flatworms, pinworms)
Increase in number during allergy attacks
May phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes thereby inactivating inflammatory chemicals

Basophils

Granulocyte, U or S shaped, 0-1% of WBCS, contain chemical histamine(initiates inflammatory response),makes blood vessel dilate and attracts other WBCS

Lymphocytes

agranulocyte, large round nucleus, 20 - 45% of WBCs (1,500 - 3,000/mm3), aggregate around lymphatic tissues(lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen)

3 types of lymphocytes

B(Bone) cells produce antibodies, T (Thymus) cells activates more B cells, and NK(Natural KIller) cells recognize abnormal cells (tumors and virus-infected) to kill

Monocyte

Agranulocyte, 4 - 8% of WBCs (100 - 700/mm3), largest, irregular shaped cell fragments, activated by macrophages (large phagocytes) for long-term infections (tuberculosis)

Platelets

thrombocytes, fragments of megakaryocytes, 250,000 - 500,000/mm3, necessary for normal blood clotting

Hemostasis

process of stopping blood flow, 3 major phases:
1. platelet plug formation
2. vascular spasms
3. coagulation (blood clotting), takes 3 - 6 min

1. platelet plug formation

underlying collagen fibers are exposed - platelets stick to them , release chemical signals to attract more platelets (positive feedback),
called a platelet plug/white thrombus

2. vascular spasms

anchored platelets release serotonin, cause blood vessel to spasm , at injury, decreases blood loss until complete clotting can occur

3. coagulation

injured tissues releasing Tissue factor interacts with PH3, Vitamin K, Ca, etc.,
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin, joining fibrinogen into fibrin, after 1 hour clot retracts squeezing serum to pull riptures edes of clod vessel, clot breaks down

Hematopoiesis

occurs in red blood marrow
starts with cell (hemocytoblast)
two pathways : lymphoid(lymphocytes) and myeloid

Sites of hematopoiesis for adults

skull, pelvis,ribs, sternum, end of epiphyses of femur and humerus

life span of RBCs

100-120 days after they become rigid and fragment, eliminated by phagocytes in spleen, liver, and other tissues

hormone controlling rate of erythrocyte production

erythropoietin

Erythropoeitin is a hormone produced by the kidneys in response to low levels of:

O2

Rate of platelet production controlled by hormone

thrombopoietin

leukocyte & platelet formation controlled by multiple hormones -

colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins
Enhances ability of mature leukocytes to perform