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Accommodation
cause you to modify your existing schemas
concepts
broad idea or framework used in psychology to understand and explain human behavior or mental processes.
Representativeness Heuristic
occurs when we estimate the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a known situation. In other words, we compare it to a situation, prototype, or stereotype we already have in mind.
Priming
a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus
sunk cost fallacy
the idea that one must go through with something or continue one's investment even if it is hopeless or detrimental to oneself. This occurs when one has invested money or time in something and feels obligated to continue to use resources on it.
divergent thinking
entails utilizing the mind in inventive, free-flowing ways to solve a given problem and find multiple creative solutions
prototypes
a mental representation of an object or concept
algorithms
problems involving a step-by-step procedure to get one goal.
Availability Heuristic
oJudging how likely a certain event is to happen based on how easily information regarding this topic is available
framing
the way that a problem is presented to someone, and it can drastically change that person's view or reaction to the problem.
executive functions
a set of cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, organize, and regulate their behavior in order to achieve goals.
convergent thinking
the process of finding a single best solution to a problem that you are trying to solve.
assimilation
the cognitive process of making new information fit in with your existing understanding of the world
Heuristics
problem-solving methods that are based on practical experience and knowledge. They allow you to use a "quick fix" to solve a minor problem or to narrow down options. They're also a great starting point for brainstorming or exploring new ideas.
mental set
cognitive framework that influences how we approach problem-solving based on previous experiences or solutions. This bias can lead to a fixed perspective, often causing individuals to overlook alternative methods and solutions, which can impact our ability to adapt to new situations.
gamblers fallacy
the belief that the chances of something happening with a fixed probability become higher or lower as the process is repeated. People who commit the gambler's fallacy believe that past events affect the probability of something happening in the future.
creativity
the ability to produce or develop original work, theories, techniques, or thoughts
functional fixedness
is the perceived inability of someone to use an object for something other than its original intended purpose.
semantic memory
the ability to remember factual information. It involves explicit or effortful memory and it is also known as type of declarative memory.
prospective memory
remembering to perform an action at a certain time.
working memory
a type of short-term memory that stores information temporarily during the completion of cognitive tasks, such as comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, and learning
Visuospatial sketchpad
our ability temporarily to hold visual and spatial information
iconic memory
a type of short-term sensory memory in which one can recall visual images for just a few milliseconds after the physical image has disappeared
long term memory
the memory process in the brain that takes information from the short-term memory store and creates long lasting memories
encoding
the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing
levels of processing model
three levels of processing can occur when information is encoded into memory: shallow processing (sensory), intermediate processing (phonetic), and deep processing (semantic).
semantic processing
the ability of the brain to store and access the meanings of words and their changes
explicit memory
the intentional recollection of newly learned information, including facts and specific events acquired during the study phase
implicit memory
the memory for information that is expressed unconsciously or automatically through improved performance on related tasks, without the need for explicit recall.
central executive
a flexible system responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes. It directs focus and targets information,
Long-term Potentiation
a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation
multistore model
describes flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).
echoic memory
the brief sensory memory of audible sounds
Automatic Processing
a type of thinking or cognition that does not involve any effort or deliberation. It is also known as unconscious processing and often occurs almost like an automatic reflex.
Storage
the creation of a permanent record of information.
Structural Processing
is when we remember only the physical quality of the word (e.g. how the word is spelled and how letters look).
working memory model
consists of at least two storage buffers: one for visuospatial information and another for verbal information.
Procedural Memory
type of implicit memory (unconscious, long-term memory) which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.
Phonological Loop
the speech- and sound-related component of working memory and holds verbal and auditory information.
sensory memory
a mental representation of how environmental events look, sound, feel, smell and taste
Short-term memory
the memory systems in the brain involved in remembering pieces of information for a short period of time, often up to 30 seconds
effortful processing
encoding information through conscious attention and effort
retrieval
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness
Phonemic Processing
the ability to perceive, interpret, and produce the sounds of speech and music.
Mnemonic devices
memory aid in which a previously learned list of words or rhymes serve as associates or "hooks" for the to-be-remembered items.
categorization
the way we sort objects into groups, known as cognitive categories, that help us organize knowledge
Memory consolidation
the process by which the brain turns short-term memories into long-term memories
serial position effect
is the psychological tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.
Method of loci
mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific locations or positions
hierarchy
long-term memory is organized through a hierarchical arrangements of concepts. Concepts may represent physical objects, events, attributes, or abstractions. These concepts are arranged from general to more specific classes. Also, these concepts can be simple or complex.
Massed practice
the learning pattern where information that has been learned is reviewed over large chunks of time that are spaced very far apart.
primacy effect
an individual's tendency to better remember the first piece of information they encounter than the information they receive later on.
Chunking
the mental leap that helps you unite bits of information together through meaning.
spacing effect
demonstrates that learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out
recency effect
a cognitive biasin which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first.
Distributed practice
a learning strategy, where practice is broken up into a number of short sessions over a longer period of time.
recall
the act of retrieving information or events from the past while lacking a specific cue to help in retrieving the information.
Context-dependent memory
the improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same
testing effect
retrieval of previously studied information can serve as a powerful mechanism for increasing long-term retention of that information
Recognition
form of remembering characterized by a feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered
State-dependent memory
is the phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall
metacognition
the capacity to reflect on, evaluate, and control cognitive processes such as decision-making, memory, and perception
Mood-congruent memory
a psychological phenomenon that explores how a person is more likely to remember a piece of information or recall a memory when it is consistent or congruent with a particular mood being experienced at the time.
forgetting curve
hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time. This curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it.
encoding failure
cognitive phenomenon that occurs when information fails to be effectively transferred and stored in the memory system due to insufficient or inadequate processing during the encoding stage.
Source amnesia
the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge
imagination inflation
an increased tendency to falsely remember that an item has been seen, or an action has been performed, when it has only been imagined.
Proactive interference
occurs when old information or knowledge interferes with the learning of new information
misinformation effect
the tendency for the information you learned after an event to interfere with your original memory of what happened.
Retroactive interference
occurs when newly acquired information inhibits our ability to recall previously acquired information
Repression
when unacceptable ideas, impulses, and memories are kept out the consciousness
Constructive Memory
memories may not be accurate reproductions of events but can be altered by new information related to beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions to fill in gaps
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