STS Midterm

Thomas Kuhn

identified paradigm shift

Paradigm

A plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena

Paradigm

Common sets shared by a community

Shift

To exchange for or replace by another

Paradigm Shift

fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

means research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time we supplying foundation for its further practice.

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

non-cumulative developmental episodes in which an older paradigm is replaced in whole or in part by an incompatible new one.

Scientific Revolutions

• Specific events in progression of science that led to a complete change of explaining phenomena from the natural world

• Steered the human society to where and how they are at the present

Claudius Ptolemy

Geocentric Theory

Geocentric Theory

Earth was a sphere in the center of the universe the Sun the Moon, the stars, and the planets revolve around Earth

deferent and epicycle

Each planet moves in two systems. These systems were added in order to explain variations in the speed and direction of the apparent motions of the planets

Nicolaus Copernicus

Heliocentric Theory

Nicolaus Copernicus

proposed that the Sun was stationary and the Earth revolved around it

Aristarchus of Samos

Pioneer: Heliocentric Theory

Commentarilous

Copernicus first published his model in ___

Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei

Copernicus’s treatise was revised and expounded by

Isaac Newton

Born to an illegitimate farmer in England

Law of Universal Gravitation

governs the paths of heavenly bodies

Laws of Motion

foundation of Classical mechanics allows us to describe and understand motion

Infinitesimal Calculus

developed along with Gottfried Leibniz

Theory of Color

Observed colors of objects are due to their selective interaction with the different colors of the visible light spectrum

concept of universal gravitation

All matter in the universe will be affected by the force of gravity in the same manner

special theory of relativity

Time and space are relative

general theory of relativity

Interweave gravity with space and time

Photoelectric Effect

when an electromagnetic radiation or light hits an object. the shorter the wavelength, the higher the chance that it will cause the release of electrons

Brownian motion

temperature is directly proportional to the kinetic energy of molecules

Robert Brown

Brownian motion

Mass Energy Equivalence

describes the relationship of mass and energy

Mass Energy Equivalence

E=mc²

Annus Mirablis papers

Einstein papers are published

Robert Boyle

“Father of Chemistry”

Robert Boyle

Works tainted with pseudoscientific concepts of alchemy

Boyle’s Law

the volume of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas

Standard Chemistry

Revising chemical nomenclature and established standards for conducting experiments 

Antoine Laurent Lavosier

“Father of Modern Chemistry”

Phlogiston theory

Dominant theory on the nature of combustion before the discovery of oxygen

Phlogiston

Fire-like element contained in objects. Burning or combustion supposedly releases this element.

Charles Darwin

Theorized evolution

evolution

all life forms have descended, over time, from common ancestors driven by natural selection

Natural Selection

a natural process that results in the survival and reproductive success of individuals or groups best adjusted to their environment and that leads to the perpetuation of genetic qualities best suited to that environment

Evolutionary Biology

a discipline of biology concerned with the processes and patterns of biological evolution especially in relation to the diversity of organisms and how they change over time

The Theory of Evolution

Humans are the dominant organisms on the Earth

Sigmund Freud

“Father of Psychoanalysis”

Sigmund Freud

Believed that man is essentially not in full control of his mind and thought

Psychoanalytic theory

Behavior arises from the interaction of the conscious and unconscious dimensions of the human mind

Unconscious

Part of the mind that cannot be controlled nor directly understood

Psychological Repression

• Unpleasant thoughts and memories were being put out of the mind

• To be hidden in the unconscious

Dreams, Verbal Slips, Free Association

Mental Disorders can be understood by:

Free Association

Patients were allowed to speak whatever it is in their mind without restriction

Oedipus complex

An unconscious sexual yearning for the parent of a different sex and hatred for the other parent

Middle Ages

Happened after the fall of Roman Empire

Odoacer

overthrown Romulus

Odoacer

first Barbarian to rule in Rome

Political, Economic, Morality

Reasons for Collapse of Roman Empire

Political

No strong leadership, assassinations, civil war, and inner turmoil army controlled state to satisfy its greed

Economic

Raise taxes, Prices increase, Cost to maintain large empire

Morality

• Discipline, duty, and loyalty not valued anymore 

• Greed increases

• People wanted free food and entertainment 

• Family life disintegrated

Francesco Petrarca

An Italian scholar who gave the idea of "Dark Ages"

Dark Ages

a period of intellectual stagnation, political instability, and economic hardship

Dark Ages

Centered in the study of the Bible and on the Christian faith

Feudalism

Political and social economic system of medieval period

King

gives support and protection to vassal

Vassal

noble wealthy people

has an obligation to a lord or monarch including military support and mutual protection in exchange for certain privileges

Peasants

They must give a portion of the harvest and work certain days in the Lord's own land

Millhouse

Grinding grains

Houses

a cottage with mud walls, clay floor, and thatched roof

Horn panes

good substitute of glass

Bed

Mattress was just a piece of cloth with straws and dried leaves inside. They were easily rotten and full of insects.

center of the room

cooking was done on a simple stone hearth in the ___

Spices

commonly used to disguise meat in bad condition

Christians

As a rule, only the very wealthy could afford taking baths.

Muslims

Were obligated by their religion to wash themselves (face, hands & feet) 5 times a day.

Linen

Flax plant

Wool

Fleece from sheep

Silk

Silkworms (from China)

Cotton

Cotton plant (from India and Americas)

High Middle Ages

Conditions of political stability necessary for the reestablishment of vigorous commercial and urban life had been secured

Arabian Peninsula

Islam began in ____

Pharmacy

plant extracts, minerals, and animal products, to create pharmaceutical formulations

Ibn Sina

Father of Modern Medicine and Founder of early medicine

Muhammad Bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi

He introduced the fundamentals of algebra. Most revolutionary contribution was the development of numbers and the discovery of zero (sifr).

Use of experimentation and quantification

The most important development of the scientific method

Al-Razi

a 9th-century Persian physician who made the first major Muslim contribution to medicine when he developed treatments for smallpox and measles.

black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood

The Theory of Four Humours 

The Theory of Four Humours 

Human Body in Balance

Jabir

discovered nitric acid and developed the process of distillation, sublimation, filtration, coagulation, and crystallization.

Ibn al-Haytham

father of optics

Ibn al-Haytham

explained how human vision takes place

Latin script/Roman script

an alphabetic writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet

Rhazes

Islamic Persian scholar, physician and alchemist, with an assistant, in his chemistry laboratory in Baghdad

lbn Rushd

 wrote commentary on Aristotle's writing

lbn Khaldun

argued for the use of historical investigation

Charles the Great or Carolus Magnus

he instigated a revival in art, culture, and learning, using the Catholic Church to transmit knowledge and education.

Charles the Great or Carolus Magnus

tried to reestablish knowledge as a cornerstone of medieval society

Charles the Great or Carolus Magnus

He promoted astronomy, a field that he loved to study, despite his inability to read

Medieval universities

These universities were centers of learning and scholarship, and they played a crucial role in the development of education, culture, and intellectual pursuits during that time

SCHOLASTICISM

a new philosophy that tried to balance human reason and logic with religious faith

Norse Mill

using a horizontally mounted waterwheel driving a pair of grindstones directly, without gears that provides the power to drive a millstone for grinding the corn from which flour is made.

Watermills

• were sited close to a stream or river, whose flow could be controlled by building a dam to hold back the water. 

• ruggedly built of stone with turf roofs, were used for grinding corn.