government and politics of the UK

🗳️ 1. How Suffrage Has Changed Since the Great Reform Act (1832) to the Present

1. Great Reform Act (1832) – Extended vote to property-owning men; approx. 1 in 7 adult males gained the vote.

2. Representation of the People Act (1918 & 1928) – 1918: Gave vote to all men 21+ and women 30+; 1928: Equal franchise for women and men.

3. Representation of the People Act (1969) – Lowered voting age to 18.

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 2. Debates Regarding Gender, Class, Ethnicity, and Age

• Gender: Women’s vote equality only achieved in 1928; debate continues on underrepresentation in Parliament (only ~35% MPs are women in 2024).

• Class: 1980s and 1990s elections revealed strong class-based voting; New Labour aimed to dissolve these lines.

• Ethnicity & Age: Youth turnout surged in 2017 (57% among 18–24s), and ethnic minorities still show lower voter turnout (~53% vs 67% white voters in 2019).

✊ 3. The Significance of the Chartists, Suffragists, and Suffragettes

• Chartists (1838–1857): First mass working-class movement; pushed for secret ballot, universal male suffrage (Ballot Act 1872 followed later).

• Suffragists (NUWSS, led by Millicent Fawcett): Peaceful lobbying and petitions, pivotal in 1918’s vote extension.

• Suffragettes (WSPU, led by Emmeline Pankhurst): Direct action, hunger strikes, and imprisonment brought urgency to women’s suffrage.

⚖️ 4. Suffrage as a Human Right

Examples:
European Convention on Human Rights (Article 3 of Protocol 1): Right to free elections is enshrined.

Prisoner Voting Rights: Ongoing debates following Hirst v UK (2005); partial rights restored in 2017.

Votes at 16 Movement: Already allowed in Scotland/Wales local elections; key youth rights issue.

🏛️ 5. Nature of Democracy

a) Direct vs Representative Democracy Examples:
Direct: 2016 EU Referendum – People voted directly on a major constitutional decision.

Representative: MPs elected to make laws, e.g. 2019 General Election.

Hybrid: Local referenda on mayors or transport policies alongside elected councils.

📊 6. Patterns & Forms of Participation

Case Studies:
Voter Turnout: Declined from 84% (1950) to 59% (2001); recovering since (67.3% in 2019).

Online Activism: Growth of petitions (e.g., 6m signed to revoke Article 50 in 2019).

Protest Movements: Extinction Rebellion, BLM UK, and anti-Brexit marches—showing new forms of engagement.

📉 7. Performance of Democratic Systems – Issues & Debates

Case Studies:
FPTP Criticism: In 2015, UKIP received 12.6% of votes but only 1 seat.

Scottish Parliament (AMS): Better proportionality – 2021 SNP won 64/129 seats with 47.7% vote.

Low Turnout Crisis: Local elections often <35% turnout, calling democratic legitimacy into question.

📆 8. Three Key Elections Since 1945
🗳️ 1983 General Election

Context: Thatcher’s post-Falklands popularity.

• Result: Conservative landslide (397 seats), Labour vote split with SDP–Liberals.

• Turnout: 72.7%

• Impact: Cemented Thatcherism, union reform, right-to-buy policy.

🗳️ 1997 General Election

Context: “Tired” Conservative government, sleaze scandals.

Result: Labour landslide (418 seats), Tony Blair's New Labour branding.

Turnout: 71.4%

Media: The Sun famously declared, "The Sun Backs Blair."

Impact: Led to constitutional reforms (devolution, HRA).

🗳️ 2024 General Election (speculative but based on plausible scenarios)

Context: Public fatigue with 14+ years of Conservative rule.

Result: Labour wins majority under Keir Starmer.

Key Themes: NHS recovery, cost-of-living crisis, green transition.

• Media Influence: Heavy online campaigning, TikTok used for youth engagement.

• Turnout: Approx. 69% (projected)

• Impact: Policy shifts toward public service investment and net zero.

🧠 9. Voting Behaviour Patterns Over Time

1950s–1970s: Strong classbased voting (Conservative = middle/upper, Labour = working class)

• 1997: Cross-class “catch-all” appeal by Blair shifted voters.

• 2019: “Red Wall” collapse – Working-class northern areas voted Conservative for Brexit.

📰 10. Role of Media and Campaigns

1983: Print media heavily pro-Conservative.

• 1997: Blair’s spin machine, The Sun switched sides.

• 2024: Rise of digital campaigning and viral short-form videos.

📑 11. Role of Party Manifestos

1983: Labour’s “longest suicide note in history” damaged credibility.

1997: New Labour manifesto emphasized moderation and reform.

2024: Likely focused on NHS, green economy, integrity.

🧑‍⚖️ 12. Influence of Elections on Policy Making

1997: Blair’s win enabled major constitutional reform.

2019: Johnson’s victory enabled swift Brexit withdrawal legislation.

2024: Labour aims for major investment in infrastructure and healthcare (expected).

⚖️ 13. Electoral Systems and Party Systems

FPTP exaggerates majority (e.g. 2015: Conservatives won majority with 36.9% of vote).

Proportional systems (AMS/STV) create coalition governance (e.g. Scotland, NI).

Party system shifts: rise of smaller parties like SNP, Greens, Reform UK.

Origins, Ideas & Development: Conservatives

Origin: 1830s from Tory tradition

1979: Thatcher shifted focus to neoliberalism (free markets, low tax)

2019 manifesto: “Levelling up”, strong nationalism, post-Brexit identity

Labour

Origin: 1900 as trade union movement

1997: Blair’s “Third Way” mixed economy

Starmer’s 2024 platform focuses on green investment, public services

Liberal Democrats

Origin: Formed in 1988 from Liberal Party & SDP

2010–2015 coalition: Promoted electoral reform & civil liberties

2024 platform: Pro-Europeanism, electoral reform, universal basic income proposals

2. Party Structures & Functions

Labour: Trade union links, National Executive Committee sets policy

Conservatives: 1922 Committee influences leadership, centrally controlled campaigns

Lib Dems: Highly democratic structure; all members vote on policy at conferences

3. Party Funding – Issues & Debates

2006 Cash for Honours Scandal – Donations linked to peerages under Blair

2019 Election – Conservatives raised £19.4 million; Labour £5.4 million

Trade Union Act 2016 – Reduced Labour’s union donation power

Relations with the Media

1992 “It’s the Sun Wot Won It” – Pro-Conservative bias influenced outcome

• 2017 Election – Labour used viral social media more effectively than expected

• 2024 Campaign – Parties using TikTok and YouTube Shorts to target under-25s

Factors Affecting Electoral Outcomes

Leadership – 1997 Blair seen as charismatic; 2019 Corbyn seen as divisive

Media Framing – 2010 debates boosted Clegg, “Cleggmania”

Turnout & Demographics – Older voters strongly Conservative; youth lean Labour/Green

6. Minor Parties' Policies & Impact

Green Party – Put climate on agenda; 2024 policy pushes green jobs

SNP – 2014 IndyRef reshaped UK debate on union

UKIP – Forced 2016 Brexit Referendum by pressuring Conservatives

Movement Toward a Multi-party system

• Devolved Elections – SNP dominance in Scotland, Plaid Cymru in Wales

• 2010 Coalition Government – Hung Parliament led to Conservative-Lib Dem alliance

• 2024 General Election (expected) – Rise of Reform UK and Greens eating into major party votes

🗣️ PRESSURE GROUPS & DEMOCRACY

8. Pressure Groups & Pluralism

Liberty – Insider group influencing rights-based legislation

• Extinction Rebellion – Outsider group using direct action to influence climate policy

• BMA (British Medical Association) – Represents doctors, lobbies NHS policy

9. Other Influences on Government

Think Tanks

Institute for Economic Affairs – Influenced Liz Truss's 2022 mini-budget

• Resolution Foundation – Analysed post-COVID inequality & cost of living crisis

• Lobbyists

  • Hanbury Strategy – Ex-Cummings firm; controversial post-Brexit lobbying

  • David Cameron/Greensill Capital – Revolving door concerns in 2021

  Corporations

  • Google & Facebook – Heavily lobbied Online Safety Bill

  • Shell/BP – Lobby for favourable energy taxation

  Media

  • Influences public debate and party agendas; e.g. Murdoch press backing Conservatives

10. Typologies & Examples

Insider Group: National Farmers’ Union – Access to DEFRA policy meetings

Outsider Group: Greenpeace UK – Campaigns using media stunts and legal action

11. Methods Used by Pressure Groups

Lobbying – BMA lobbying for junior doctor pay

Direct Action – Extinction Rebellion’s bridge-blocking protests

• Petitions & Legal Action – Liberty’s challenges to protest laws

12. Factors Affecting Pressure Group Influence

Membership Size – RSPB has over 1 million members

Finance – Big corporate groups fund lobbying arms

Media Links – Greenpeace often generates front-page stories

13. Links with Political Parties, Gov, Media

Unite Union – Funds Labour, influences policy

CBI – Works closely with Treasury and DfE

Extinction Rebellion – Uses viral media, gains support without formal links

🇪🇺 THE EUROPEAN UNION

14. Aims of the EU & How Far They’ve Been Achieved

Single Market – Enabled free movement of goods, services, people

Peace & Stability – EU awarded 2012 Nobel Peace Prize

Monetary Union – Eurozone stability mixed; Greece bailout crisis a major setback

15. Impact of EU on UK Politics & Policy Making

Brexit (2016–2020) – 52% voted Leave; major sovereignty and immigration debates

Laws & Regulations – Up to 60% of UK law estimated to originate from EU directives before Brexit

Fisheries & Agriculture – Common Agricultural Policy shaped UK farming subsidies for decades

📜 The nature and sources of the British constitution

Statute law: Human Rights Act 1998 – Incorporates the ECHR into UK law.

Common law: Entick v Carrington (1765) – Reinforced limits on executive power and affirmed the rule of law.

Constitutional conventions: Salisbury Convention – House of Lords does not block manifesto legislation from the Commons.

⚖️ Contemporary legislation and current issues regarding rights

Public Order Act 2023 – Controversial expansion of police powers over protests (e.g., Just Stop Oil).

Online Safety Act 2023 – Concerns over free speech and digital privacy.

Rwanda asylum plan – Government's deportation plan challenged as a breach of human rights.

🧩 Issues and debates around recent constitutional changes

Brexit (2016–2020) – Shifted power from EU to UK Parliament, led to sovereignty debates.

Prorogation of Parliament (2019) – Ruled unlawful by the Supreme Court, raising constitutional concerns.

Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 – Repealed the Fixed

📢 Debates about the extent of rights in the UK

Right to protest vs. public order – Public Order Act & police crackdowns (e.g., Sarah Everard vigil, 2021).

Free speech vs. hate speech – Hate Crime and Public Order (Scotland) Act 2021.

Rwanda Plan – Raises questions about asylum seekers’ rights under international law.

🏛️ Two examples of constitutional changes since 1997

Devolution (1998) – Creation of the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Senedd, and Northern Ireland Assembly.

Freedom of Information Act 2000 – Gave public access to government documents, increasing transparency.

⚖️ Areas where individual and collective rights are in agreement/conflict

Agreement:

Right to education (individual) aligns with public funding for schools (collective good).

Freedom of religion allows collective worship and group identity.

Conflict: 3. COVID lockdowns – Right to liberty vs. public health and safety.

🕵️ Scrutiny of the executive and its effectiveness

Select Committees – PAC's investigation into COVID PPE procurement.

PMQs – Boris Johnson questioned weekly during ‘Partygate’ scandal.

Judicial review – Supreme Court ruling on unlawful prorogation (2019).

🏛️ Parliamentary debate and the legislative process

Commons debate on Brexit Withdrawal Agreement (2019) – Historic defeat of May’s deal.

Lords’ amendments to the Illegal Migration Bill (2023) – Demonstrates revising role.

Backbench Business Committee debates – Example: 2021 debate on Uyghur genocide.

🏠 Commons

Greater legitimacy due to election – More influential in budget and legislation.

Backbench rebellions – 2021: 100+ Conservative MPs voted against COVID restrictions.

Debates & PMQs – Hold PM and ministers accountable.

🏰 Lords

Revision role – Defeated government on parts of Welfare Reform Bill (2012).

Crossbench peers – Bring expertise, e.g., Lord Krebs on climate change.

Limitations – Cannot permanently block legislation due to Parliament Acts.

📚 Theories of representation

Burkean: MPs should act on conscience – Example: Rory Stewart voting against party lines on Brexit.

Delegate: Reflect constituents’ direct wishes – E.g., Brexit vote representation debates.

Mandate: MPs follow party manifesto – Labour’s 1997 landslide led to major constitutional reform.

👥 Roles and influence of MPs and peers

MPs: Chris Bryant – Vocal on standards in public life.

Peers: Lord Heseltine – Influential on EU matters and constitutional reform.

MPs’ inquiries – Caroline Nokes on women’s rights in the Home Affairs Committee.

📊 Significance of Commons and Lords

Committees: PAC on Test and Trace spending.

Opposition: Keir Starmer’s scrutiny of Johnson over COVID ethics.

Influence: Lords amended the Nationality and Borders Bill multiple times.

⚖️ Extent of Parliament’s influence on government

Party discipline: 2020 COVID Tier System – Government won despite internal rebellion.

Civil servants’ appearances: Home Office limiting officials on Windrush scandal.

Whips control: Committee membership often aligned with government interest.

🏛️ Interactions of Parliament and other branches

Judiciary: Supreme Court ruling in Miller II (2019).

Monarchy: Royal Assent – symbolic but essential for legislation.

Devolved bodies: Scottish Parliament opposing aspects of UK Internal Market Act.

🧠 How policy is made

Cabinet committees – Shape policies like economic packages during COVID.

Consultation papers – Online Safety Bill went through white/green paper process.

Think tanks – Influence like the IEA and Policy Exchange on economic reforms.

🤝 PM & Cabinet relationship

Strong PM: Tony Blair (1997–2007) dominated Cabinet decision

⚖️ Individual vs. collective responsibility

Crichel Down (1954) – Sir Thomas Dugdale resigned over civil service error.

Iain Duncan Smith (2016) – Resigned over benefit cuts, citing moral reasons.

👑 PM and Cabinet power: Two key examples

Poll tax (1990) – Thatcher pushed policy despite opposition; led to downfall.

Iraq War (2003) – Blair used majority power to push controversial invasion.

🏛️ Government

Parliament relations

⚖️ Composition of judiciary and appointments

Judicial Appointments Commission (since 2006) – Open, merit

🏛️ Supreme Court role & impact

Miller cases (2017, 2019) – Clarified limits of executive power.

Begum case (2021) – Ruling limited government obligation on citizenship rights.

HS2 ruling – Court upheld government's right to proceed despite protests.

⚖️ Judicial influence & processes

Ultra vires: Courts ruling Home Secretary acted beyond powers (e.g., deportation cases).

Judicial review: Over 4,000 applications annually.

Supreme Court independence: Removed from Lords in 2009 for impartiality.

🏴 Devolved bodies – Roles & powers

Scotland – Control over health, education, justice.

Wales – Health policy divergence (e.g., COVID measures).

Northern Ireland – Power

🏙️ Debate on devolution in England

English Votes for English Laws (EVEL) – Repealed in 2021 due to complexity.

Regional inequality – Fueling calls for devolved English assemblies.

Northern Powerhouse – Example of localized policy agenda, still debated.

🏞️ Existing devolution in England

Greater London Authority – Mayor and Assembly (since 2000).

Metro mayors – Manchester (Andy Burnham) with transport and housing powers.

Cornwall devolution deal (2015) – First rural devolution deal in England.

🇬🇧 Impact of devolution on UK government

Asymmetric powers – Different laws and policies in nations (e.g., free prescriptions in Scotland).

Independence debate – SNP driving pressure for another Scottish referendum.

Policy divergence – Varied COVID