SOCIOLOGY FINAL REVIEW

Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social influences.

Social Sciences

Fields of academic study that examine human society and social relationships.

Functionalism

A perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability.

Causation

The relationship between cause and effect; one event is the result of another.

Correlation

A mutual relationship or connection between two or more things, but does not imply causation.

Operational Definition

A statement that describes how a particular variable will be measured or defined in a given study.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to test its effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment; it is affected by changes in the independent variable.

Anomie

A state of normlessness where social norms are confused, unclear, or simply absent.

Verstehen

A concept introduced by Max Weber, meaning 'understanding', used to explain the empathetic understanding of human behavior.

Dramaturgical Approach

A sociological perspective that compares social interaction to theater, emphasizing that individuals perform roles.

The Looking-Glass Self

A concept by Charles Horton Cooley describing how self-perception is influenced by others' perceptions.

Macrosociology

The study of large-scale social processes and structures.

Microsociology

The study of small-scale interactions and the meanings individuals attach to them.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable leads to an increase in the other.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other.

Dysfunctional

Elements of a society that disrupt its normal functioning.

Manifest Function

Intended and recognized consequences of a social structure or action.

Latent Function

Unintended and often hidden consequences of a social structure or action.

Spurious Correlation

A false impression of a relationship between two variables caused by a third variable.

What is stratification?

Ranking of individuals or categories of people on the basis of unequal access to scarce resources and rewards.

Bourgeoisie

Owners of the means of production

Proletariat

Workers who sell their labor in exchange for wages

Caste system

Closed stratification system, lifelong status determined by parents

Endogamy

Marriage within caste

Exogamy

Marriage outside of caste

Social class

Grouping of similar people with similar levels of wealth, power and prestige.

Wealth

Assets

Power

Controlling others behavior

Prestige

Respect/honor

Social mobility

Movement between or within a social class

Horizontal mobility

Movement within a social class

Vertical mobility

Movement between social classes

Intergenerational

Within a persons lifetime

Intragenerational

Several generations of one family

Socioeconomic status

Rating that combines social factors (education, occupation, & residence) with the factor of income.

Determined social class by reputation method

Community ranks

Determined social class by subjective method

Self-determined rank

Determining social class by objective method

Stats like job/education/income

Upper class

Makes up the top 1%

(Either old money or new money)

Upper-middle class

14% of population

High-income businesspeople and professionals

Politically and socially active

Lower-middle class

30% percent of population

White collar jobs that require less education (nursing, sales)

Comfortable life but have to work

Working class

30% of population

Manual labor, pays more but less prestige than white collar

Unexpected crises can push them into lower class

The working poor

22% of population

Lowest paying jobs (housecleaning, migrant farm work, day labor)

Rely on government programs and are high school dropouts

The underclass

3% of population

Have experienced unemployment or poverty

Government programs

Day-to-day struggle

Poverty stats

1 in 9 in the U.S. live below the poverty line

(About 11-13%)

Poverty effects

Disadvantage in health and life expectancy, divorce rates are higher among low income families, crime rates are higher in poor communities

Minimum wage

The lowest amount you can legally be paid per hour of work. It’s $7.25 in the United States

Social security

For older Americans

Medicare

Healthcare for older Americans

Social welfare programs

Transfer payments:

• redistribution of wealth

• AFDC - aid for dependent children

• Food stamps

• Housing, school lunch programs, Medicaid

Race

Category of people who share observable physical characteristics and whom others see as being a distinct group

Ethnicity

Set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes one group from another

Discrimination

Denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership (individual or societal level)

Prejudice

Is an unsupported generalization about a category of people

Cultural pluralism

Each group keeps cultural identity

Assimilation

Bleeding into 1 group

Legal protection

Rights of minorities protected

Segregation

Physical separation of a group

De jure - law

De facto - fact

Subjugation

Control over group by force (slavery)

Population transfer

Literally moving the minority group

Extermination

Genocide or ethnic cleansing

Gender stratification

The inequalities between men and women when it comes to wealth, power, & privilege

Gender

Behavior and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women

Gender roles

The specific behaviors established by society for men and women

Sexism

Prejudice, stereotyping or discrimination on the basis of sex

Wage gap

The level of women’s income relative to that of men

Glass ceiling

The invisible barrier that prevents women from gaining upper-level positions

Second shift

The work a working mother does in the home

Ageism

Ageism is the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category

Graying of America

the fact that by 2050, 1 in 5 will be over the age of 65. It is a phenomenon of an increasing percentage of Americans being 65 or older.

ADA

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 that makes discrimination against people with disabilities illegal.

Prejudice and discrimination in the workforce

• A stereotype is that people with disabilities cannot do productive work

• Many cannot find jobs and those that do earn less

• Government policies aim to fix this problem

The ADA makes it illegal to discriminate people with disabilities when it comes to hiring, promotion, and pay. It also requires job training and aids to be provided as needed.

Material

Physical (can touch)

Nonmaterial

Beliefs (culture)

3 components of society

1. Common culture with unity

2. Independent of others outside their group

3. Similar territory

Elements of culture: technology

Use of material culture

Elements of culture: symbols

Represents something else

Elements of culture: language

Organization of written words/symbols

Elements of culture: values

Good/bad, desirable/undesirable

Elements of culture: norms

Socially acceptable/not acceptable

Examining culture: dynamic vs. static

Dynamic - constantly changing

Static - unchanging

Culture: traits

Individual tool, act, or belief

Culture: complexes

Cluster of interrelated traits (ex. Football)

Culture: patterns

Combination of culture complexes (athletics across the board)

Race vs. culture

Race - non-behavior, static, no choice, external

Culture - behavior, dynamic, choice, internal

Innovation

Introducing an idea or object to a new culture

Discovery

Sharing the existence of an aspect of reality

Invention

Combining of cultural elements into new form

Diffusion

Cultural items spread from group to group (exploration, tourism, & mass media)

Reformulation

Adapting borrowed traits to meet new culture

Cultural universals

General traits found in every culture

-some needs so basic that all societies must develop certain feature

(Athletic sports, cooking, family, laws, tool making)

Nacirema

A North American group. The came from the east. They have a highly developed market economy. The health of the human body is critical. They believe that human bodies are full of death and disease. The shrine is built into the wall (medicine cabinet). Ritual a ceremony are key, they have a shrine, the medicine men decide the ingredients that someone needs. They bow in front of the charm box. Women bake their heads in small ovens for an hour (perm), the men use knives on their face (shaving). A special language is used for medicine.

What does it mean to have a language?

Depending upon language for the use and transmission of the rest of the culture. Includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and gestures.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

Language precede thought in development. Language shapes the way people think. People who speak different languages perceive the world in different ways.

Bubbles in society

Personal space

Intimate bubble

Up to 18” reserved for the closest to us

Personal bubble

18” to 4’ conversational, friends

Social bubble

4’ to 7’ impersonal business

Public bubble

7’+ public occasions, famous people w/ fans