Unit 5 - Cognitive Psychology (Mods 31-36, 60-64)

AP PSYCHOLOGY

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining information in memory over time

Retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

we learn faster when we learn something for the second or more time

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

if a memory is never used or recalled, then it will decay quickly over time, and then level off

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

A model for describing memory in which there are three distinguishable kinds of memory (sensory, short term, long term) through which info passes in a sequential way as it is processed.

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

encodes explicit memories

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

George Miller (1956)

Magical Number Seven: People can store about seven bits of information (give or take two)

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Craik and Tulving

Two people who found that semantically processed words were remembered more than the others.

levels of processing model

model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure of appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

Karl Lashley

Found that memory is not stored in just one place of the brain. Tested on rats.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

can be likened to a save button for explicit memories

processes explicit memories then feeds them to other storage areas in the brain

Damage to hippocampus can affect recall

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

helps enable nonverbal and learning memory

plays key role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning

with damaged cerebellum, people cannot develop certain conditioned reflexes.

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills (implicit or nondeclarative)

received info from cortex but do not send it back for conscious awareness and procedural learning

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

stress provokes amygdala to initiate memory trace that boosts activity in memory forming area of brain

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

Eric Kandel and James Schwartz

discovered the neural basis of learning, long-term potentiation, by observing changes in the sending neurons of a simple animal, the California sea slug, Aplysia.

synaptic changes

learning results in increased release of serotonin and increased efficiency

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

retrieval cues

Associations.

Contexts.

States and moods.

A stimulus or aid that helps to elicit the recall of a memory by an individual.

associating something with the piece of target information

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

storage decay

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

retrieval failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info

motivated forgetting

forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

Repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

Leveling

simplifying the story

Sharpening

overemphasizing certain details

Assimilation

changing details to better fit the subject's own background or knowledge

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

dejavu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

Algorithm

a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Kohler

insight learning

insight learning

aha moment

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

gut feeling

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common