Human Development: a Cultural approach: Chapter 7

myopia

visual condition of being unable to see distant objects clearly; also known as being nearsighted

executive function

the ability to solve cognitive problems without becoming distracted and to adjust one's strategy as the nature of a problem changes

Malnutrition

lack of proper nutrition

overweight

in children, defined as having a BMI exceeding 18

obesity

in children, defined as having a BMI exceeding 21

BMI (body mass index)

a person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters

concrete operations stage

in Piaget's theory, the cognitive stage in which children become capable of using mental operations

Seriation

ability to arrange things in a logical order, such as shortest to longest, thinnest to thickest, or lightest to darkest

selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

mnemonics

memory strategies, such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration

Rehearsal

mnemonic that involves repeating the same information over and over

Organization

mnemonic that involves placing things mentally into meaningful categories

elaboration

mnemonic that involves transforming bits of information in a way that connects them and hence makes them easier to remember

metamemory

understanding of how memory works

intelligence

capacity for acquiring knowledge, reasoning, and solving problems

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

widely used intelligence test for children ages 6 to 16

2 multiple choice options

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

widely used for children ages 3 to 7

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

widely used for those 16 and older

intelligence quotient (IQ)

a score of mental ability as assessed by intelligence tests, calculated relative to the performance of other people the same age

normal distribution

typical distribution of characteristics of a population, resembling a bell curve in which most cases fall near the middle and the proportions decrease at the low and high extremes

intellectual disability

level of cognitive abilities of persons who score 70 or below on IQ tests

gifted

in IQ test performance, persons who score 130 or above

Flynn effect

steep rise in the median IQ score in Western countries during the 20th century, named after James Flynn, who first identified it

theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence

Linguistic intelligence

skills involved in the production and use of language

musical intelligence

potential to appreciate, compose, and perform music

logistical-mathematical intelligence

the ability to understand the underlying principles of some kind of casual system

Spacial Intelligence

Ability to perceive the relationship between objects and how they move in space

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

potential to use mind and body to coordinate physical movement

interpersonal intelligence

the ability to read, empathize, and understand others

intrapersonal intelligence

potential to understand and regulate oneself

naturalist intelligence

ability to identify and classify patterns in nature

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

analytical intelligence

the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving

creative intelligence

ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem

practical intelligence

the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful

multilingual

capable of using or speaking several languages

metalinguistic skills

in the understanding of language, skills that reflect awareness of the underlying structure of language

phonics approach

method of teaching reading that advocates breaking down words into their component sounds, called phonics, then putting the phonics together into words

whole-language approach

method of teaching reading in which the emphasis is on the meaning of written language in whole passages, rather than breaking down words into their smallest components

dyslexia

a learning disability that results in difficulty reading and writing

learning disabilities

cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading

numeracy

understanding of the meaning of numbers

dyscalculia

term for people who have a neurologically-based problem in processing numbers

Experience Sampling Method (ESM)

a method of collecting data about adolescents' emotional states, in which individuals are paged and asked to report on their mood and activity

ambivalence

emotional state of experiencing two contradictory emotions at once

self-concept

people's description of their own characteristics

social comparison

how persons view themselves in relation to others with regard to status, abilities, or achievements

Self-esteem

persons feeling of self worth and well-being

independent self

construing one's identity as an autonomous self

interdependent self

a way of conceiving the self in terms of social roles and as a being that is embedded in and dependent on the group

coregulation

relationship between parents and children in which parents provide broad guidelines for behavior but children are capable of a substantial amount of independent, self-directed behavior

family process

the quality of relationships among family members

coercive cycle

pattern in relations between parents and children in which children's disobedient behavior evokes harsh responses from parents, which in turn makes children even more resistant to parental control, evoking even harsher responses

divorce mediation

arrangement in which a professional mediator meets with divorcing parents to help them negotiate an agreement that both will find acceptable

selective association

in social relations, the principle that people tend to prefer being around others who are like themselves

age graded

social organization based on grouping persons of similar ages

social status

within a group, the degree of power, authority, and influence that each person has in the view of the others

Popular children

frequently nominated as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers

Neglected children

children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers

Rejected children

children who are infrequently nominated as a best friend and are actively disliked by their peers

Controversial children

children who are frequently nominated both as someone's best friend and as being disliked

social skills

behaviors that include being friendly, helpful, cooperative, and considerate

social information processing (SIP)

in social encounters, evaluations of others' intentions, motivations, and behavior

developmental cascade

when a problem at one point in life surges into a series of problems over time

bullying.

pattern of maltreatment of peers, including aggression; repetition; and power imbalance

industry versus inferiority

Erikson's middle childhood stage, in which the alternatives are to learn to work effectively with cultural materials or, if adults are too critical, develop a sense of being incapable of working effectively

media multitasking

simultaneous use of more than one media form, such as playing an electronic game while watching TV