Unit 1 - Biology & Behavior - AP PSYCHOLOGY

ap psychology

Stimulants

Excite the functional activity of the body system

Caffeine

Example of a stimulant

Psychological Effects of Caffeine

Pleasure, increased alertness

Physiological Effects of Caffeine

Negative effects such as insomnia, uncomfortable withdrawal

Cocaine

A rush of euphoria, energy

Depressants

Diminish the activity of the body system

Alcohol

Initial high, relaxation, disinhibition, depressed mood, organ system damage

Hallucinogens

Produces a sensory effect without the stimuli

Marijuana

Enhanced sensation, impaired memory, lung damage if smoked

Opioid

Derived from naturally occurring opiates- they relieve pain and suppress coughs

Heroin

Euphoria, highly addictive, reduction of anxiety

Plasticity or Neuroplasticity

The ability of the nervous system to change, adapt, and rewire based on input from the environment

Consciousness

Awareness of ourselves and our environment

Circadian Rhythm

24-hour cycle of wake and sleep

Sleep Cycle

Brain Waves during different sleep stages

Alpha Waves

Brain waves present when awake

NREM-1

Hypnogogic sensations- hallucinations without storylines

NREM-2

Transitional stage between light and deep sleep

NREM-3

Deep sleep, characterized by Delta Waves

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, dreaming, sleep paralysis

Tolerance

Diminished effect of the drug; more is required to receive the same effect

Withdrawal

Symptoms after stopping using a drug, including cognitive, physiological, emotional, insomnia, and behavioral

Addiction

Physiological or psychological dependence on a drug

Brainstem

Controls basic bodily functions including breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure

Cerebellum

Helps maintain balance, coordinate muscle movements, and some forms of procedural learning

Limbic System

The emotional brain, involved in some memory functions

Thalamus

Receives sensory input (except smell) and routes them to higher brain regions

Broca's Area

Production of speech

Wernicke's Area

Interpretation of sounds

Aphasia

Language impairment due to brain damage

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

The measure of brain electrical activity with sensors on top of the skull

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Generates successive images of brain activity

Reflexes

An automatic response to a stimulus that involves the sensory neurons to interneurons and back to the motor neurons before the brain registers the stimulus.

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves to voluntary muscles and sensory receptors.

Somatic Nervous System

Nerves to voluntary muscles.

Automatic Nervous System

Controls involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic Division

Mobilizes bodily resources.

Parasympathetic Division

Conserves bodily resources.

Efferent Neurons

Outgoing neurons.

Afferent Neurons

Incoming neurons.

Heredity

The transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

Nature versus Nurture

An important debate about the influence of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) on behavior.

Genetic Predisposition

A tendency for certain traits to be inherited.

Natural Selection

The gradual change in a population over many generations due to environmental factors.

Eugenics

A social and political philosophy that seeks to improve the genetic makeup through selective breeding.

Neural Transmission

Sending information from one neuron to another via chemical messengers at the synapse.

Action Potential

Neural firing; a change in electrical charge takes place in the axon.

Resting Potential

The cell is at rest, typically -70 mV inside the axon.

All-or-Nothing Principle

A neuron either reaches action potential or it doesn't; there is no partial firing.

Threshold for Excitation

Stimulus intensity is significant enough to make a neuron fire.

Reuptake

The process of the sending neuron reabsorbing neurotransmitters released in the synapse.

Refractory Period

A period of inactivity after a cell fired; it will not respond to stimuli.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons into synapses that transmit information to nearby neurons.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

Enables muscle memory, action, and learning; deteriorates in Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

Influences movement and emotion; excess linked to schizophrenia, too little linked to Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, and sleep; undersupply linked to depression.

Glial Cells

Support the functions of neurons by providing nutrients, insulating myelin, and cleaning up waste.

Myelin Sheath

The insulating layer surrounding the axon that increases the speed of transmission.

Endorphins

Produced during intense physical activity or trauma; reduces pain sensations and induces euphoria.

Agonist

A chemical or drug that binds to the receptor site of a neuron and produces an effect similar to a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A chemical or drug that binds to the receptor site of a neuron but blocks neurotransmitters from attaching.

Reuptake Inhibitors

Block the sending neuron from reabsorbing neurotransmitters, keeping them in the synaptic gap longer.

REM

The increased occurrence of REM sleep after REM sleep deprivation.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

The brainstem randomly generates neural impulses. Areas such as the visual and auditory cortices fire randomly. The dreamer weaves the neural impulses into a story.

Consolidation Theory

Dreams help us process long-term memories by activating and reorganizing neural pathways.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Brief and uncontrollable attacks of sleep during the daytime.

Sleep Apnea

Brief moments when one stops breathing during sleep.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleepwalking.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Act out dreams instead of paralysis, including kicking, punching, and arm flailing.

Sensation

Information is received from the environment (sensory stimuli) and transduced into a neural signal.

Absolute Threshold

The amount of stimulation needed to trigger awareness in 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

The smallest amount of noticeable difference between two stimuli in 50% of trials.

Weber's Law

The difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus.

Gustation

Sense of taste, including sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus.

Touch

Specific receptors for warmth, pain, cold, and pressure.

Phantom Limb Pain

Pain and sensations felt in a nonexistent limb.

Gate-Control Theory of Pain

The spinal cord has gates that can open and close in response to pain signals to the brain.

Kinesthesis

Using sensors in muscles, tendons, and joints for position and balance without having to look at the body as it moves.

Vestibular Sense

Using fluid movement in the inner ear's semicircular canals to maintain balance and equilibrium.

Acoustical Transduction

Converting sound waves into neural impulses.

Sound Waves

Compression and refraction of air molecules.

Wavelength

Distance from one peak to another.

Amplitude

Height of the wave, determines intensity (perceived loudness).

Frequency Theory

The perception of different pitches is due to the speed of neural impulses.

Place Theory

Perception of different pitches is due to the place on the Cochlea that the sound wave stimulates.

Conduction Deafness

Loss of hearing due to damage to the eardrum or bones of the middle ear.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Loss of hearing due to damage to the cochlea, basilar membrane, or hair cells of the inner ear.

Olfactory Stimulation

Transduction in the nasal cavity by odorants (smell).

Pheromones

A chemical signal or scent.