Relationships across cultures

Why do we seek out potential mates

for courtship, mating, marriage, civil partnerships, and same sex marriage

People across the globe describe their personal relationships as the…

most important part of their lives

The quality of … is one of the best predictors of overall life satisfaction and well-being

personal relationships

Cultures differ regarding what is considered appropriate in…

• attraction and mate selection

• expression of love and sexuality

• forms of marriage and choice to divorce

Relationships can no longer be defined in …

traditional ways

What are the different types of varied lifestyles and relationships

• growing rates of cohabitation

• single parenthood

• divorce

• blended families

• same-sex marriage

• surrogate mothers

How does the global chaos of love describe relationships, Beck and Beck-Gernsheim (2014)

relationships are a ‘series of entanglements, negotiations, and confrontations’ which result from globalisation

What has influenced the current state of our close friendships

• economics

• individualism

• technology

How does socioeconomic development affect relationships

socioeconomic development affects our access to educational and financial resources which allow for more independence in relationships

Are women now more or less likely to marry than in the past

less likely to marry

• notion of the traditional male breadwinner is a thing of the past

What aspects on a relationship are more important in the western world

self-expression and personal fulfilment has become more important

What do reproductive technologies permit women to do

to control their fertility

• women can have children when they choose

What do reproductive technologies impact

the birth rate

• more access than ever before to contraception

Give an example of how communication technologies and social media interfere with relationships

through smart phones and computers, we have the ability to immediately connect with others at any time in any location across the globe

What is technoference

when a person's use of digital devices (like smartphones, tablets) interrupts or interferes with face-to-face interactions, relationships, and family time, particularly impacting parent-child moments

What is phubbing

act of ignoring someone you're with in favour of your mobile phone

• a common digital-age behaviour that negatively impacts relationships by making people feel ignored, undervalued, and disconnected, leading to resentment and weaker bonds

How does technoference and phubbing contribute to relationships

contribute to less than satisfying relational interactions

What is the matching hypothesis (summarise)

people who are equal in physical attractiveness select each other as partners

What is the similarity hypothesis (summarise)

similar demographics, religion, social class, education, intelligence, attitudes, and physical attractiveness

What is the reciprocity hypothesis (summarise)

people like others who like them back

Across all cultures, what are top 4 factors in choosing a mate

• mutual attraction

• emotional stability and maturity

• good health

• pleasing disposition (character)

What are the 4 least preferred mate characteristics

• chastity

• similar religious background

• similar political background

• favourable social status

Describe Buss’s evolutionary framework

highlights heteronormative male-women mate preferences

• women valuing resource acquisition and males valuing reproductive capacity

• focus on long-term mating

What does Buss’s evolutionary framework state about non-binary or gender diverse people

doesn’t explicitly address non-binary or gender-diverse individuals, whose mate selection strategies and preferences may be shaped by a broader range of personal, social, and cultural factors beyond traditional evolutionary pressures

What does Buss’s evolutionary framework under-represent

cultural, social, identity, and relational factors

What are 5 of Buss’s 18 mate-preference attributes

• good looks

• pleasing disposition

• kind and affectionate

• healthy

• intelligent

Describe the study of ‘mate preferences in Argentina transgender people: an evolutionary perspective’, Aristegui, Castro Solano & Buunk, (2018)

sample: 123 male-to-female (MTF) and 94 female-to-male (FTM) transgender individuals in Argentina

• they rated the classic 18 attributes from Buss’s framework

What did the study of ‘mate preferences in Argentina transgender people: an evolutionary perspective’, Aristegui, Castro Solano & Buunk, (2018) find

found that both biological sex and gender identity contributed to preferences

• e.g. MTF valuing attractiveness and socioeconomic status more than FTM

  • FTM valuing dependability more than MTF

What are the cultural and gender differences in Buss’s study - chastity

• in China, India, Taiwan, and Iran, chastity was viewed as highly desirable in a prospective mate

• in the Netherlands, Sweden, and Norway, it was considered irrelevant

What are the cultural and gender differences in Buss’s study - housekeeper

being a good housekeeper was highly valued in Estonia and China and of little value in Western Europe and North America

What are the cultural and gender differences in Buss’s study - refinement/neatness

refinement/neatness was highly valued in Nigeria and Iran and less so in Great Britain, Ireland, and Australia

What are the cultural and gender differences in Buss’s study - religion

being religious was highly valued in Iran, moderately valued in India, and little valued in Western Europe and North America

In Western cultures, marriage is viewed as…

the culmination (highest point/peak) of romantic love represented by the idealistic and ‘fairy-tail’ notion that an individual meets their soul-mate

• e.g. meet their soul-mate, fall in love with them, marry, and live ‘happily ever after’ with the notion that ‘love conquers all’

How do people in collectivist cultures view love and marriage

place less emphasis on romantic love and love commitment in marriage

• historically, people married for political reasons - to acquire status

• romantic love wasn’t unknown, but it was not considered an essential part of marriage and was discouraged on the basis of being a selfish and weak reason to marry

What is the Eastern ideal of marriage and love

based on the notion individuals have several possible mates with whom they could have a successful and enduring marriage with

Many of the arranged marriages common in Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world do not have …

romantic love as a basis

How is an arranged marriage viewed (Pande, 2014)

viewed as more than just a union between two individuals but an alliance between families and even communities

What do supporters of an arranged marriage argue

that satisfaction can be higher compared to Western marriages

• because the couple don’t have high expectations of love at the beginning and receives large family support for partnership

How are arranged marriages doing now

trends are changing even in countries where arranged marriage has been popular

• e.g. in Japan, love marriages are replacing arranged marriages, but traditional customs often remain as part of the ceremony

Friendship relationship is heavily linked with how children are:

• socialised:

  • the culture’s value system

  • emphasis placed on issues like collectivism and individualism

  • friendships occur within a defined sociocultural context with ‘cultural blueprints’

Expectations and norms of what friendship signifies in terms of:

• who

• types of interactions

• degree of emotional connectedness

What have cross-cultural studies found about friendships in collectivist cultures (French, 2015)

friendships are more intimate and less extensive than those in individualistic cultures

Relationships that are intimate and less extensive are seen to provide…

a social setting where people can develop skills and build self-esteem

What do East Asian and Latino collectivistic cultures emphasise within friendships

emphasise affiliative and cooperative activities along with advocating for interpersonal harmony and responsibility within friendships

Describe what the studies on friendship in Indonesia and South Korea have shown differences in friendship:

• Indonesian friendships being lower in intimacy and more extensive and transient (temporary/short)

• Korean friendships tend to be very intimate, exclusive, and durable

  • it’s about socialisation of cooperative and compliant behaviour with others

Describe the study by Gummerum and Keller (2008)

friendships among children in Chine, Russia, and former East Germany

What did Gummerum and Keller (2008) find

• found a universal developmental sequences of friendship reasoning for children in different societies

  • e.g. stages that begin with friendship formation and include trust, jealousy, and conflict resolution, etc.

However even if friendship formation is similar what influences types and expectations of friendships

cultural factors influence the types and expectations of friendships

What do children learn to do to be accepted by peers and cultural norms

children learn to modify behaviours to fit acceptable peer norms and cultural norms

What can friendships serve as a buffer to

can sere as a buffer that protects children during adjustment to life events

• e.g. migration, new school, etc.