AP Psych Unit 1D Vocab

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

Perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful.

Bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

Top-Down Processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses that the brain can interpret.

Absolute threshold

the minimum amount of stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

Signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Subliminal

below one’s absolute threshold for consciousness awareness.

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

Difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (JND)

Sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Wavelength

The distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission.

Hue

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the colors names blue, green, and so on and so forth.

Intensity

The amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height)

Cornea

the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement. ___ are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don’t respond.

Cones

Retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Blind Spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptors are located there.

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red, green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to the specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

Pitch

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness depends on frequency.

Middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

Cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

Inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

(nerve deafness) -the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or the auditory nerve.

Conduction Hearing Loss

a less common form of hearing loss; caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Cochlear Implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded in the cochlea.

Place Theory

in hearing the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. (Also called place coding)

Frequency Theory

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (also called temporal coding)

Gate Control Theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that clocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers, and is closed by activity in large fibers or by information coming from the brain.

Gustation

our sense of taste - involves several basic sensations

Olfaction

our sense of smell

Kinesthesis

our movement sense; our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

Vestibular sense

our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.

Sensory interaction

the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

Embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgment.