New Wetland topic for exam

Wetland Restoration

the return of a wetland from a disturbed or altered condition to a previous condition

Wetland Creation

conversion of a persistent upload or shallow water area into a wetland

Wetland enhancement

increase of one or more functions of an existing wetland

Wetland conservation

protection and preserving of an existing wetland

Restoration ecology

scientific study of restoring degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems

Ecological restoration

intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability

includes reforestation, removal of non-native species, revegetation of disturbed areas, reintroduction of native species, habitat improvement

the practice of the discipline of restoration ecology

Restoration Goals

one goal should be primary (often maximize a service while minimizing cost)

important to list goals before site selection and design

multiple goals are good-but one overarching goal to guide process

Site Selection

restoration/creation goal

balance cost and outcome

landscape

General guidelines for site selection

wetland restoration is generally more feasible than wetland creation

need to take into account the surrounding land use and the future plans for the land

undertake a detailed hydrologic study of the site, including a determination of the potential interaction of groundwater with the proposed wetland

find a site where natural inundation is frequent

inspect and characterize the soils in some detail to determine their permeability, texture, and stratigraphy

determine the chemistry of the soils, groundwater, surface flows, flooding streams and rivers, and tides that may influence the site water quality

evaluate on-site and nearby seed banks to ascertain their viability and response to hydrologic conditions

ascertain the availability of necessary fill material, seed, and plant stocks and access to infrastructure (e.g., roads, electricity)

determine the ownership of the land and hence the price

for wildlife and fisheries enhancement, determine if the wetland site is along ecological corridors, such as migratory flyways or spawning runs

assess site access

ensure that an adequate amount of land is available to meet the objectives

Seagrass Restoration techniques

planting

broadcast seeds

Riparian buffer restoration

a riparian forest buffer is an area of native trees and shrubs along a stream. without forest cover, streams are unprotected from runoff pollution and susceptible to streambank erosion. unbuffered streams are unlikely to support a diversity of aquatic life that processes pollutants from the water

Estimating Success

restored vs reference

restoration plans more encompassing

ecological vs legal success

Mitigation

policy requires wetlands to be created, restored, or enhanced to replace wetlands lost in development

mitigate - make less harsh or harmful

mitigating the damage to / loss of a wetland

replacement wetland

success?

• 1993-2012 = net gain of 8,000 ha/yr

• permitting destruction = 8,000 ha/yr

  • creation/restoration/enhancement/conservation plant = 16,000 ha/yr

Mitigation ratios

no net loss ratio 1:1

mitigation ratio 2:1

7:6:1 wet meadows

3:5:1 forested wetlands

1:2:1 freshwater marshes

1:1 open water systems

Mitigation Bank

A wetland area that has been restored and protected to provide compensation for impacts to wetlands

wetlands built ahead of development need and credits can be sold

created by gov’t agency; corporation

in 1992 there was 42 banks in the US, as of 2002 there is 219 banks (public and private) covering 50,000 ha in 29 states

Four distinct components: bank site, bank instrument, interagency review team, and service area

Compensatory mitigation credits - bank’s value and ecological assessment

Pro’s of mitigation banks

expedite permitting process

reduces effort for developer

large wetland area and not many small

already established so no time lost

self-supports existing wetlands

conserve more wetland acreage

Con’s of mitigation banks

Promotes loss of smaller wetlands

can reduce wetlands in a watershed

urban vs rural

Restoration/Creation Principles

1. design the system for minimum maintenance and a general reliance on self-design

2. design a system that utilizes natural energies, such as the potential energy of streams, as natural subsidies to the system

3. design the system with the hydrologic and ecological landscape and climate in mind

4. design the system to fulfill multiple goals, but identify at least one major objective and several secondary objectives

5. give the system time

6. design the system for function, not form

7. do not overengineer wetland design with rectangular basins, rigid structures and channels, and regular morphology

Treatment Wetlands

wetlands can be used to improve water quality

• natural wetlands

• surface flow constructed wetlands

• subsurface flow constructed wetlands

Components

• soil

• hydrology

• vegetation

treatment wetlands are not the solution to all water quality issues

Treatment Wetlands - Wastewater Types

municipal wastewater wetlands - houghton lake treatment wetland in Michigan

mine drainage wetlands - acid mine drainage treatment wetland in Southeastern Ohio

urban stormwater treatment wetlands

agricultural stormwater & wastewater treatment wetlands - everglades

river diversion wetlands

Treatment Wetlands - Considerations

values of the wetland, such as wildlife habitat, should be considered in any treatment wetland development

acceptable pollutant and hydrologic loadings must be determined for the use of wetlands in wastewater management. Appropriate loadings, in turn, determine the size of the wetland to be constructed. Overloading a constructed wetland can be worse than not building it at all.

all existing characteristics of local natural wetlands, including vegetation, geomorphology, hydrology, and water quality, should be well understood so that natural wetlands can be copied in the construction of treatment wetlands

particular care should be taken in the wetland design to address public health, including mosquito control and protection of groundwater resources.

Classification of freshwater wetlands

90-95% wetlands are inland (nontidal)

5.5 million km2

Inland Salt Marsh

Inland salt marshes are rare inland wetlands dominated by emergent herbaceous vegetation with salinity ranging from entirely fresh to polyhaline

Tidal Freshwater Marsh

Tidal freshwater marshes are along rivers and estuaries close enough to the coastline to experience significant tidal by non-saline water; vegetation is often similar to nontidal freshwater marshes

Tidal Freshwater Marsh Hydrology

Inland from the tidal salt marshes but close enough to the coast to experience tidal effects

Freshwater Marshes

freshwater marshes are frequently or continually inundated wetlands characterized by emergent herbaceous vegetation adapted to saturated soil conditions

Freshwater marshes worldwide

95,000.

US = 9,600

Alaska = 17,000

Canada = 15,900

Freshwater Marsh Diversity

wet meadows

sedge meadows

vernal pools

prairie potholes

Freshwater Marsh Hydrology

freshwater

precipitation and runoff

evapotranspiration

recharge or discharge

seasonality

hydroperiod

• ephemeral

• temporary

• seasonally semipermanent

• permanent

Freshwater Marsh Soil

more mineral soils than peat

autochthonous input dominants

pH range 6-9

organic content 75% - 10%

nutrient range can vary (input, vegetation, flow)

Freshwater Marsh Vegetation

emergent herbaceous

common graminoid species (phragmites)

common sedge species

common broad-leaved monocotyledons

common fern species

invasive species - pennsylvania. tree of heaven, japanese honeysuckle

common in disturbed areas

invasive species - aquatic

Freshwater Marsh Inhabitants

A lot of fauna species

mammals

birds

amphibians

reptiles

insects

mollusks

crustaceans

bacteria

An oasis for a lot of fauna

same fauna species as fw swamp inhabitants

Freshwater Marsh Ecosystem Services

Third most valuable ecosystem in the world

used by humans for over 10,000 years

foundation species

primary productivity

high productivity

ranges 1000-6000

belowground biomass plays a valuable role

nutrient cycling (supporting)

decomposition

Freshwater Swamps

freshwater swamps are wetlands dominated by trees or shrubs

Amount of freshwater swamps

worldwide = 109,000

US = 28,200

alaska and canada palustrine forested wetlands are assumed to be peatlands

Freshwater Swamp Diversity

Cypress-tupelo swamps

white cedar swamp

red maple swamp

riparian wetlands

Distribution of FW swamps

about 1.1 million km2 of freshwater swamps

20% of global inland wetlands

Freshwater Swamp soil

range depending on swamp type

• generally acidic but depends on peat accumulation and precipitation

• can be nutrient and mineral poor conditions in rainwater fed swamps to nutrient and mineral rich conditions in alluvial river swamps

• river swamps often have different water quality than adjacent river

Freshwater Swamp Hydrology

Freshwater - precipitation (and runoff) and adjacent waterbody (river)

seasonality

landscape

The natural levee (FW Swamp hydrology)

The river channel meanders

natural levees - highest elevation on the floodplain and adjacent to the channel that are composed of coarse deposited materials

Point bars

areas of sedimentation on the convex sides of river curves.

as sediments are deposited on the point bar, the meander curve of the river tends to increase in radius and migrate downstream

eventually the point bar begins to support vegetation that stabilizes it as part of the floodplain

Meander scrolls

depressions and ridges on the convex side of bends in the river

formed from point bars as the stream migrates laterally across the floodplain

referred to as ridge and swale

Oxbows, oxbow lakes, or billabongs

bodies of permanently standing water that result from the cutoff of meanders

Sloughs

areas of dead water that form in meander scrolls and along vallet walls

Backswamps

deposits of fine sediments that occur between the natural levee and the valley wall or terrace

Terraces

abandoned floodplains that may have been formed by the river’s alluvial deposits but are not hydrologically connected to the current river

Freshwater Swamp Vegetation

emergent woody vegetation

cypress swamps

• cypress

• bald cypress

• pine

cedar swamps

• atlantic white cedar

• black spruce

• eastern hemlock

red maple swamps

• red maple

• winterberry

• spicebush

Freshwater Swamp Vegetation adaptations

buttresses

knees

seed dispersal

longevity

adventitious roots

Freshwater Swamp Ecosystem Services

similar to freshwater marshes (generally clump inland wetlands together)

used by humans for over 10,000 yrs

foundation species

primary production

energy flow

Weather

temporary state of the atmosphere are a certain place and time

the variation in temp and precipitation over periods of hours or days

what is occurring now

Climate

the typical atmospheric conditions that occur throughout the year, measured over many years

typical weather conditions in a region over a long period of time

the average weather over time

Paleoclimate

cores reveal past temperatures

earth’s climate has cooled and warmed several times throughout its history (some even warmer than today)

Rapid Increase

current change in climate is more rapid than previous changes

past century the global temperature risen 0.7C which is 10x’s faster than average ice age recovery warming rate

in north america 1983-2012 was the warmest 30 year period of the last 1,400 years

Greenhouse Effect

The process of solar radiation striking Earth, being converted to infrared radiation, and being absorbed and re-emitted by atmospheric gases

Atmospheric composition

nitrogen - 78.08%

oxygen - 20.95%

water - 0-4%

argon - 0.93%

carbon dioxide - 0.0360%

Greenhouse gas drivers

greenhouse gases

• carbon dioxide

• methane

• nitrous oxide

aerosols

• sulphur dioxide

• organic carbon

• ammonia

Climate Change Cause

carbon dioxide (CO2 atmospheric increase)

Global Carbon Budget 2020

2020 fossil emissions decrease of 2.4 billion tonnes is largest ever recorded

emissions from road transport cause the largest share of the global 2020 decrease

the level of CO2 continues to increase in the atmosphere, causing climate change

Methane Emissions

total emissions

• 28 from biomass and biofuel burning

• 190 from wetlands

• 39 from other natural emissions

it is a source since it is emitting more methane than what is in the atmosphere. the total emissions into the atmosphere is 592 and the total sinks in 571. total emitted by wetlands is less than 592.

Wetlands are very susceptible

global climate change is expected to exacerbate the loss and degradation of many wetlands and the loss or decline of their species

Inland wetlands in current conditions

in fair conditions, with high horse densities, high nitrogen deposition, but low densities of the invasive species, phragmites

Inland wetlands with climate change impacts

inland wetland habitats, except for those most interior, will become more saline from saltwater intrusion, overwash and increased evapotranspiration, especially in the summer. Plant species will transition to those that are more tolerant of increasing salinity, such as phragmites, while trees will become increasingly stressed. Freshwater availability for amphibians, feral horses, and small mammals will decline.

Climate Change Impact with sea level rise

higher sea levels

higher sea temperatures

changes in precipitation patterns and coastal runoff

changed oceanic conditions

changes in storm tracks, frequencies and intensities

Climate change and biophysical impacts

more extensive coastal inundation

increased coastal erosion

saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers

higher storm-surge flooding

loss of coastal habitat

displacement of coastal lowlands and wetlands

shifting species

harmful blooms / invasive alien species

Climate change and socio-economic impacts

damage to coastal infrastructure, including that used for transportation and recreation

increased property loss

increased risk of disease

increased flood risks and potential loss of life

changes in renewable and subsistence resources

loss of cultural resources and values

increasing protection costs

wetland definition

hydrology must be present on the surface or in root zone at some point in the growing season (water)

soils are inundated long enough to develop anaerobic conditions (hydric soil)

biota adapted to saturated conditions, particularly vegetation (hydrophytic vegetation)

hydroperiod

the balance between inflows and outflows of water; water budget

hydrologic pathways

precipitation, surface runoff, groundwater, tides, river flow, evotranspiration

hydric soils

soils that formed under conditions of saturations, flooding, or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part

Hydrophyte

plant adapted to wet conditions

Halophyte

salt-tolerant plant

biota

must survive in an unstable/harsh environment; plants and animals have evolved specialized structures and behavior to survive extreme environmental conditions

hypoxia

water (or soils) with dissolved oxygen less than 2mg/L

anoxia

waters (or soils) with no dissolved oxygen

Bog

a peat-accumulating wetland that has no significant inflows or outflows and supports acidophilic mosses

marsh

a frequently or continually inundated wetland characterized by emergent herbaceous vegetation adapted to saturated soil conditions

swamp

wetland dominated by tress or shrubs

Upland (UPL)

almost never occur in wetlands

1% occurrence in wetlands

rarely is a hydrophyte, almost always in uplands

almost never occur in standing water or saturated soils, typical growth forms include herbaceous, shrubs

Facultative Upland (FACU)

usually occur in non-wetlands, but may occur in wetlands.

1-33% occurrence in wetlands.

occasionally is a hydrophyte, but usually occurs in uplands

Facultative (FAC)

occur in wetlands and non-wetlands

34-66% occurrence in wetlands

commonly occurs as either a hydrophyte or non hydrophyte

Facultative Wetland (FACW)

usually occur in wetlands, but may occur in non-wetlands

67-99% occurrence in wetlands

usually is a hydrophyte but occasionally found in uplands

Obligate (OBL)

almost always occur in wetlands

99% occurrence in wetlands

almost always is a hydrophyte, rarely in uplands

Four obligate plant types

submerged

floating

floating-leaved

emergent

Submerged

plants that conduct virtually all of their growth and reproductive activity under water

pond weed

floating

plants that most often grow with the leaves and other vegetative and reproductive organs floating on the water surface

common duckweed

floating-leaved

plants that are rooted in sediment but also have leaves that float on the water surface

american water lily

emergent

herbaceous and woody plants that grow with their bases submerged and rooted in inundated sediment or seasonally saturated soil and their upper portions, including most of the vegetative and reproductive organs, growing above the water level

cattail

Structural plant adaptations

aerenchyma tissue in roots and stem

adventitious roots

stem hypertrophy

fluted trunks

rapid vertical growth / growth dormancy

shallow root systems / prop roots

lenticels

pneumatophores and cypress knees

Physiological plant adaptations

pressurized gas flow

rhizospheric oxygenation

sulfide avoidance

anaerobic respiration

decreased water uptake

salt excretion

altered nutrient absorption

Whole plant strategies (adaptations)

timing of seed production

buoyant seeds and buoyant seedlings

viviparous seedlings

persistent seed banks

resistant roots, tubers, and seeds

Succession

the process of directional change by which the species composition of a community changes over time

proceeds through series of stages that remain relatively stable through (ecological) time

pioneer species

the earliest species to arrive at a site

climate community

the final seral stage in the process of succession

autogenic succession

vegetation in communities

community changes through time by the biota

changes are linear and directed toward a mature, stable climax ecosystem

allogenic succession

influenced by environmental factors

create wetlands to transition

throughfall

amount of precipitation that falls through canopy

interception

amount of precipitation that is retained in canopy

stemflow

amount or precipitation that flows down stems

Net precipitation

amount of precipitation that reaches wetland surface/water

watersheds and runoff

climate determinant

surface water inflow and outflow