key terms

Terra Nullius

• Legal doctrine that claimed land was unoccupied or uninhabited, justifying European colonization and the dispossession of Indigenous peoples 

• European ideas of property meant individuals owned land with clear legal titles 

• Despite the difference in land systems, the British Crown still recognized that Indigenous people had a legitimate claim to the land 

Royal Proclamation 1763

• Foundational document issued by the British Crown that acknowledged Indigenous land rights and laid the groundwork for future treaty-making in what is now Canada. It aimed to establish economic stability by creating reserved territories for Indigenous peoples, protecting their lands from encroachment by settlers. While it recognized Indigenous land occupation, it was ambiguous about their sovereignty. The proclamation marked a shift in colonial power, with the British assuming military control and allowing French settlers freedom of religion, reflecting a broader strategy of maintaining order and cooperation among different groups 

Indian Act 

• The Indian Act aimed to assimilate Indigenous people into the white majority, leading some to call it a form of genocide. It gave the federal government control over nearly every aspect of Indigenous life. One key provision, enfranchisement, encouraged Indigenous people to give up their legal status, creating a divide between Status Indians (registered under the Act) and non-status Indians (those who were not).

Responsible Government 

• A form or government in which the political executive must retain the confidence of the elected legislature or assembly and must resign or call an election if and when it is defeated on a vote of nonconfidence 

Quebec Act, 1774 

• The British law passed in 1774 that provided for a system of government for the colony of Quebec (Canada) and provided certain privileges to the French-speaking, Roman Catholic majority. 

• Ex. This was used to accommodate the French-Canadians 

Residual Power 

• Those powers not explicitly given to the provinces in the Constitution Act, 1867, that were assigned to the federal government under the opening words of section 91 

• Ex. MacDonald gave provinces only 16 specific powers and made sure all leftover (residual) powers stayed with the federal government. This created a strong central government. 

Section 91/92 of the Constitution

• Divide powers between the federal and provincial governments 

Federalism

• a system of government characterized by two levels of authority (federal and provincial) and a division of powers between them, such that neither is subordinate to the other 

Centralization

• controlled by one person (they can control elections, who speaks, public service, media attention, etc. 

• Ex. The Prime Minister has centralized power, because they control all these factors mentioned above 

Decentralization

• giving power and decision-making to local or regional governments instead of keeping it all with the central (national) government 

• Ex. decentralization in Canada is accomplished by stronger regional or provincial loyalties and identities, again because of the example set by Quebec 

Regionalism

• The government focuses on the interests and needs of its own province or region, sometimes more than national unity

• Ex. Liberals winning because of the most votes, despite Alberta and Saskatchewan having a majority of conservative seats (Ontario’s decision and big provinces)

First-past-the-post 

• An electoral system where the candidate with the most votes in a riding wins, even if they don’t have a majority, just more than anyone else. It’s also called single-member plurality. 

• Ex. parties winning because of a plurality, not based on the majority of the votes 

Western Alienation

• The feeling shared by many Western Canadians that their interests are not taken seriously in the national policymaking process 

• Ex. Alberta and Saskatchewan Canadians often feel that their voices are not heard in elections due to the influence of larger provinces. 

Prorogation

• A Pause of the Parliament, directed by the Prime Minister, was supposed to be used for emergencies. Governor General symbolism   

• Ex. Stephen Harper propagated, because he knew the Liberals, NDP, and Quebec Separatists wanted to attempt to take him out 

Section 1: reasonable limits 

• Allows governments to limit rights and freedoms, but only if the limits are reasonable, justified, and can be clearly demonstrated in a free and democratic society 

• Ex. Ford v. Quebec 

Party discipline

• The convention that all MPs within any party vote together on every occasion, as predetermined in the party caucus meeting, ordered the prime minister in the case of the government party, and is enforced by the party whip 

• Ex. Individual MPs and elections are all whipped train (the job is to do whatever the party boss tells them to do) 

Centralization of power: 

• controlled by one person (they can control elections, who speaks, public service, media attention, etc). 

• Ex. The Prime Minister has centralized power, because they control all these factors mentioned above 

Trustee Model:

• elected representatives use their own judgment and experience to make decisions, even if those decisions go against what voters want. They act in the way they believe is the best interest of the people 

• Ex. Former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s support for official bilingualism and multiculturalism, despite the Quebec separatist request. He believed that it would benefit a promising, meaningful constitutional reform to better include Quebec within a stronger, united Canadian federation 

Delegate Model:

• representatives act as a direct voice for their constituents, making decisions based on the opinions of voters, rather than their own judgment 

• Ex. Members of Parliament voting based on their constituents’ views, rather than their parties or their own views

Rational-Institutionalism: Parliament 

Theoretically, the Queen, the House of Commons, and the Senate function collectively, such as in the approval of legislation, but are often used to refer to the Commons alone or sometimes the Commons and Senate

Speaker of the House 

• is a non-partisan figure who acts like a referee or moderator in the House of Commons. Chosen by the party in power, the Speaker manages debates and ensures rules are followed. They only vote to break a tie and are expected to remain neutral, meaning the less partisan they are, the less political power they hold.

• Ex. Anthony Rhoda was the speaker of the house and invited an intense nazi unit fighter 

Theories of representation: Descriptive

• representative physically or socially resembles the group they represent (e.g., same race, gender, or background, etc.)

• Ex. an Inuk MP from Nunavut represented the lived experiences of Indigenous peoples in Canada 

Theories of representation: Symbolic

• a representative stands for or symbolizes a group, even if they don’t share the same background; it’s more about public perception and trust 

• Ex. PM Trudeau’s commitment to having more women in parliament (inspiring future generations wanting to get involved)

Theories of representation: Substantive

• Are women changing the parliament rules or laws of women's issues? Something is changing in parliament 

• Formal (illegal) vs. informal (behaviour) 

• Ex. rise of more females in parliament. More conversations about women, debates on women's issues → Men changed their dialogue after having more women in parliament 

Brokerage Politics

• A kind of party system in which political parties try to appeal to many different interests and “broker” compromises among them, rather than having any distinct ideology 

• Ex. the Liberal party would be considered a brokerage party, because they try to balance the interests of different regions

Political Ideology: Left

• Part of the ideology spectrum that believes in equality in society and the intervention of government via such collectivist measures as taxation, regulation, redistribution, and public ownership to effect such equality 

• Ex. The NDP is considered to be a left-wing party

Political Ideology: Right

• The part of the ideological spectrum that cherishes individualism and believes in leaving the private sector to operate with minimal government intervention 

• Ex. The Conservatives are considered to be a right-wing party

Ford v. Quebec

• In Ford v. Quebec, the Supreme Court ruled that a Quebec law requiring French-only signs violated freedom of expression. The Court said that forcing businesses to use only French was unconstitutional, even though promoting French was a valid goal. The decision showed that Charter rights can be limited, but the limits must be reasonable and balanced under Section 1. 

Points System 

• An approach to immigration policy where prospective immigrants apply to the government and are evaluated on the basis of characteristics such as language ability, education, and employment prospects. A certain number of points are assigned for each category, and only applicants with a sufficient number of points are eligible for to the country. Canada uses a points system for regular immigration. The points system does not apply to refugees 

Multiculturalism

• A policy of encouraging minority ethnocultural groups to maintain their customs and traditions, often with public financial assistance  

• Ex. Canada is known to be a multicultural place