Intro. to Psychology - S1 Final Review Terms

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on consequences.

Reinforcement

Increases behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Add something good. Ex: You get candy for doing homework.

Negative Reinforcement

Remove something bad. Ex: No chores tonight because you finished homework.

Punishment

Decreases behavior.

Positive Punishment

Add something unpleasant. Ex: Extra chores for yelling at a sibling.

Negative Punishment

Remove something good. Ex: Phone taken away for breaking curfew.

Social Learning Theory

Learning by watching and imitating others.

Modeling

Copying behavior.

Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment

Learning from someone else's consequences.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Children copied aggressive behavior they observed.

Stage Development

Development happens in clear steps or phases.

Continuous Development

Development happens gradually, like a smooth curve.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget.

Sensorimotor Stage

0-2 years; learn through senses and movement.

Object Permanence

Develops when things still exist even when unseen.

Preoperational Stage

2-7 years; symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years; understand conservation and logical thinking.

Formal Operational Stage

12+ years; abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Schema

Mental categories used to organize knowledge.

Assimilation

Fitting new info into an existing schema.

Accommodation

Changing/creating a new schema to fit new info.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing from another person's point of view.

Theory of Mind

Understanding that others have their own beliefs, thoughts, and feelings.

Conservation

Knowing quantities stay the same even if appearance changes.

Internal Working Model

Early attachment relationships form the blueprint for future relationships.

Imprinting

Instant attachment seen in some animals.

Contact Comfort

Emotional warmth and comfort matter more than food for attachment.

Mary Ainsworth - Strange Situation

A structured experiment to observe a baby's attachment style.

Secure Attachment

Explores the room; upset when caregiver leaves but calms when they return.

Avoidant Attachment

Does not show distress when caregiver leaves; avoids them when they return.

Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment

Clingy; very upset when caregiver leaves and angry when they return.

Disorganized Attachment

Confused, freezing, or contradictory behavior.

Erik Erikson's Stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Main challenge: 'Who am I?'

Identity Statuses

Based on Exploration and Commitment.

Diffusion

Not exploring options; not committed.

Foreclosure

Committed without exploring; usually following parents' expectations.

Moratorium

Actively exploring; not committed yet.

Identity Achievement

Explored options and made choices; has a strong, confident identity.

Inductive Reasoning

Drawing a general conclusion from specific observations.

Deductive Reasoning

Using a general rule to predict a specific outcome.

Structuralism

Focuses on breaking mental processes into basic components.

Functionalism

Focuses on how mental processes help us adapt to our environment.

Psychodynamic Approach

Focuses on unconscious thoughts, early childhood experiences, and inner conflicts.

Behaviorist Approach

Focuses on observable behavior only.

Humanistic Approach

Focuses on free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.

Sociocultural Approach

Focuses on how culture, society, and social interactions influence behavior.

Biological (Neuroscience) Approach

Focuses on brain structures, neurotransmitters, genetics, and biological processes.