AP Psych Vocab

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Goals

A form of self-regulation adopted by humans to achieve specific aims

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behavior or events

Darwin

Evolutionary theorist who not only revolutionized biology with his theory of natural selection, but also revolutionized psychology by proving animal behaviors with empirical evidence

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of scientific psychology; focused on the structure of the mind and basic elements of consciousness

Introspection

The process of looking inward to identify how one feels, thinks, or acts

Structuralism

Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener, used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Sigmund Freud

Emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes affect our behavior

William James

Assumed that thinking developed because it was adaptive, meaning it contributed to our ancestor’s survival; first educator to offer a psychology course

Functionalist

Belonging to the early school of thought that explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and fluorish

John B. Watson

Championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as “Little Albert”

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Eclectism

An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

Neurobiological approach (medical)

aims to correlate the work of the chemical and electrical impulses in our brain and nervous system to the ways that humans behave

Behavioral approach

In personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

B.F. Skinner

Rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior

Humanistic approach

Focuses on the potential for healthy personal growth

Carl Rogers

Drew attention away from early childhood memories and conditioned responses, and towards ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential, and to the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied

Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Cognitive approach

Perspective focused on all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Sociocultural approach

Describes how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Placebo

Effect; experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Double-blind study

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Subjects

The participants that are taken for the purpose of doing research

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Field experiments

Studies that are conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting; participants are observed for their reactions to variables and likely unaware of the research

Experimental group

The group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control group

The group not exposed to the treatment: contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Sample

A subset of a population of interest that is selected for study with the aim of making inferences to the population

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Interview

A directed conversation in which a researcher, therapist, clincician, employer, or the like intends to elicit specific information from an individual for purposes of research, diagnosis, treatment, or employment

Casestudy method

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Cross-sectional method

A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Longitudinal method

Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Construct validity

The degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity

Criterion-related validity

An index of how well a test correlates with an established standard of comparison

Informed consent

An ethical principle that research particpiants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to particpants

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize— to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of both central tendency and variation

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Variability

The degree to which members of a group or population differ from each other, as measured by statistics such as the range, standard deviation, and variance

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well either variable predicts the other

Z-score

The standardized score that results from applying a z-score transformation to raw data; dimensionless quantities

Biological Psychology

branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrite

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse

Junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether it will generate a neural impulse

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction (Undersupply=Alzheimer’s disease)

Endorphins

Natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters; linked to pain control and to pleasure

Nervous System

The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system; consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Nerves

Neural “cables” containing many axons; part of the peripheral nervous system; connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

Interneurons

CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Motor Neurons

Carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

Sympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflex

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus

Neural Networks

Interconnected neural cells; with experience, they can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results; computer simulations of these show analogous learning

Lesion

Tissue destruction; a brain _____ is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface; these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

PET (positron emission tomography) Scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

Base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Thalamus

The brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

Limbic System

A doughnot-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex; includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Amygdala

Two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

Hypothalamus

Neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities(eating, drinking, body temp.); helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland; is linked to emotion

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal Lobes

Involved in speaking and muscles movements and in making plans and judgments

Parietal Lobes

Include the sensory cortex

Occipital Lobes

Include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

Temporal Lobes

Include the auditory areas

Motor Cortex

Area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations

Association Areas

More intelligent animals have increased “uncommitted” or ____________________ of the cortex

Aphasia

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s Area

An area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscles movements involved in speech

Wernicke’s Area

An area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression

Plasticity

The brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development