Crime and Crime Causation

Visible crime

A category of crime that is easily observed and recognized by the public.

Occupational crime

Criminal offenses committed through opportunities created in a legal business or occupation.

Organized crime

A framework for the perpetration of criminal acts—usually in fields such as gambling, drugs, and prostitution—providing illegal services that are in great demand.

Transnational crime

Profitseeking criminal activities that involve planning or execution across national borders.

Victimless crime

Offenses involving a willing and private exchange of illegal goods or services that are in strong demand. Participants do not feel they are being harmed, but these crimes are prosecuted on the grounds that society as a whole is being injured.

Political crime

An act, usually done for ideological purposes, that constitutes a threat against the state (such as treason, sedition, or espionage); or a criminal act by the state.

Cybercrime

Offenses that involve the use of one or more computers.

National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)

A reporting system in which the police describe each offense in a crime incident, together with data describing the offender, victim, and property.

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)

An annually published statistical summary of crimes reported to the police, based on voluntary reports to the FBI by local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies.

National Crime Victimization Surveys (NCVS)

Interviews of samples of the U.S. population conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics to determine the number and types of criminal victimizations and thus the extent of unreported as well as reported crime

Victimization risk factors

Factors that increase the likelihood of becoming a victim of crime, such as being a young male in a lower-income community.

Routine activities theory

A variation of the lifestyle approach that sees crime arise in times and places where there is a convergence of specific elements: motivated offenders, suitable victims, and a lack of capable guardians to prevent or deter criminal acts.

Financial costs of crime

The economic losses incurred by businesses and individuals due to criminal activities.

Psychological effects of victimization

The mental health impacts experienced by individuals who have been victims of crime.

Fear of crime

The anxiety or concern individuals feel about becoming victims of crime, affecting their daily lives.

Classical school of criminology

A school of criminology that views behavior as stemming from free will, demands responsibility and accountability of all perpetrators, and stresses the need for punishments severe enough to deter others

Positivist school of criminology

A school of criminology that views behavior as stemming from social, biological, and psychological factors. It argues that punishment should be tailored to the individual needs of the lawbreaker.

Twentieth century criminology

The period during which positivist criminology became the dominant approach to studying criminal behavior.

anomie

A breakdown or disappearance of the rules of social behavior.

biological explanations

Explanations of crime that emphasize physiological and neurological factors that may predispose a person to commit crimes.

control theories

Theories holding that criminal behavior occurs when the bonds that tie an individual to society are broken or weakened.

criminogenic

Having factors thought to bring about criminal behavior in an individual.

critical criminology

Theories that assume criminal law and the criminal justice system are primarily a means of controlling the lower classes, women, and minorities.

cybercrimes

Offenses that involve the use of one or more computers.

dark figure of crime

A metaphor that emphasizes the dangerous dimension of crimes that are never reported to the police.

feminist theories

Theories that criticize existing theories for ignoring or undervaluing women’s experiences as lawbreakers, victims, and people subjected to decision making by criminal justice officials.

integrated theories

Theories that combine differing theoretical perspectives into a larger model.

labeling theories

Theories emphasizing that the causes of criminal behavior are found not in the individual but in the social process that labels certain acts as deviant or criminal.

learning theories

Theories that see criminal behavior as learned, just as legal behavior is learned.

life course theories

Theories that identify factors affecting the start, duration, nature, and end of criminal behavior over the life of a person who has committed crimes.

lifestyle-exposure theory

Approach to understanding the unequal distribution of crime and victimization that examines the differential exposure to crime of demographic groups, such as the young or the poor, based on where they live, work, and engage in leisure activities.

money laundering

Moving the proceeds of criminal activities through a maze of businesses, banks, and brokerage accounts so as to disguise their origin.

occupational crimes

Criminal offenses committed through opportunities created in a legal business or occupation.

psychological explanations

Explanations of crime that emphasize mental processes and behavior.

social conflict theories

Theories that view crime as the result of conflict in society, such as conflict between economic classes caused by elites using law as a means to maintain power

social process theories

Theories that see criminality as normal behavior. Everyone has the potential to become a criminal, depending on (1) the influences that impel one toward or away from crime and (2) how one is regarded by others.

social structure theories

Theories that blame crime on the existence of a powerless lower class that lives with poverty and deprivation and often turns to crime in response.

sociological explanations

Explanations of crime that emphasize as causes of criminal behavior the social conditions that bear on the individual.

theory of differential association

The theory that people become lawbreakers because they encounter more influences that view criminal behavior as normal and acceptable than they do influences that are hostile to criminal behavior.

victimology

A field of criminology that examines the role the victim plays in precipitating a criminal incident and also examines the impact of crimes on victims.