social psychology and personality

unit on motivation, personality, and emotions

instincts

-innate, fixed patterns of behavior in animals that are triggered by specific stimuli, driving them to act in unpredictable ways; humans do not usually exhibit this behavior (sea turtles instinctively move toward the ocean upon hatching)

drive-reduction theory

-behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal drives caused by physiological deficits, such as hunger or thirst, aiming to restore homeostasis (after spending many hours outside in the summer heat, a person experiences a dry mouth, which indicates the need to drink)

ghrelin

-hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite (a teenager feels extremely hungry after work and decides to eat a larger meal to satisfy that hunger)

leptin

-hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger (teenager becomes full and satisfied after eating the large meal after the brain sends signals to reduce appetite)

belongingness

-innate human desire to form and sustain close, meaningful relationships, which significantly drives behavior and affects emotional health (teenager moving to a new school and feeling disconnected at first, but overtime, develops friendships through practices and games in their new sport)

arousal theory

-individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness, seeking to increase alertness when it is too low and decrease it when it is too high, to enhance performance and well-being (college student studying for several hours and becomes bored, so they take a break and go for a job to re-energize themselves)

yerkes-dodson law

performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point; when levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases (preparing for an important math exam where they initially feel a moderate level of stress, pushing them to do their best)

sensation-seeking theory

-proposes that one's motivation is driven by the need for varied, novel, and intense experiences (teenager always eager for new and exciting experiences decides to join an adventure club at school)

thrill seeking

-component of sensation-seeking theory, where individuals are motivated by the desire for intense and exciting experiences, often involving risk (skydiving out of plane at 6,000 feet above ground)

adventure seeking

-component of sensation-seeking theory, where individuals are motivated by the desire for new and challenging experiences, often involving physical activities and exploration (young adult snow boarding down steep slopes to feel the rush of adrenaline)

disinhibition

-refers to the tendency to seek out social and experimental thrills by engaging in behaviors that are typically restrained by social norms and inhibitions (normally reserved person attends a party and begins to dance and drink excessively; unlike their normal behaviors)

boredom susceptibility

-refers to an individual's intolerance for repetitive or monotonous experiences, leading them to seek out new and stimulating activities to avoid boredom (daily routine of classes, homework, and extracurricular activities bores them, so they join new clubs and maybe pick up a job)

incentive theory

-behavior is motivated by the desire for external rewards or incentives, which can include money, praise, or other TANGIBLE benefits (sales employee is motivated to exceed their monthly targets because they could be rewarded with a substantial bonus)

self-determination theory

-proposes that people are motivated by intrinsic (internal) motivations: personal growth/fulfillment, or extrinsic (external) motivations; rewards/recognition (elementary teacher starting an after school program to help students, as seeing their students improve gives them a sense of autonomy)

intrinsic motivation

-refers to engaging in activities for their own sake, driven by internal rewards such as personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or a sense of achievement (teenager playing the guitar and spends hours practicing every day because they enjoy it and are satisfied from mastering new songs)

extrinsic motivation

-engaging in behavior due to external rewards or pressures, such as money, grades, or approval from others (college student determined to maintain a high GPA to acquire a scholarship)

lewin's motivational conflicts theory

-describes the psychological struggles individuals face when making decisions (approach: moving towards a goal because it is desirable or rewarding; avoidance: avoid/move away from a goa because it is undesirable or potentially harmful)

approach-approach conflicts

-occurs when an individual must choose between two desirable options, leading to a conflict of which positive outcome to pursue (receiving acceptance letters from two top universities, both of which are desirable)

avoidance-avoidance conflicts

-occurs when an individual must choose between two undesirable options, leading to a conflict of which negative outcome to avoid (young adult not liking the job they are in, but also don't want to quit because of unemployment and the possibility of not being able to find a job)

approach-avoidance conflicts

-occurs when an individual is drawn to and repelled by the same option, leading to a conflict between the desire for a positive outcome and the fear of a negative consequence (college graduate offered their dream job in a different state, but that means moving far away from family and friends)

emotion

-also known as affect; the feeling that involves our thoughts, body reactions, and actions, and is influenced by what happens inside us and around us (college student being surprised by their best friend and is immediately happy, smiling, and embracing them)

elicitors

-stimuli/events that trigger an emotional response in an individual and may regulate how people from different genders, ages, or socioeconomic classes within a culture can display and interpret emotions (a loud, piercing scream eliciting a surge of fear and anxiety)

arousal comes before emotion

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

-suggests that emotions follow bodily arousal; we feel sad because we cry, and afraid because we tremble (person walking at night and noticing footsteps behind them, so their palms sweat, heart races, etc.)

facial-feedback hypothesis

-suggests that facial expressions can influence emotions, meaning that smiling can make you feel happier and frowning can make you feel sadder (having a rough day and to cheer up, you smile in the mirror for a couple minutes and notice you feel a little better)

arousal and emotion occur simultaneously

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

-arousal and emotion occur simultaneously and independently; an emotion-triggering stimulus causes both bodily arousal and emotional experience at the same time (watching horror movie late at night and during a frightening scene, they feel their heart start to race/emotion of fear)

arousal+cognitive label=emotion

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

-emotion is the result of physiological arousal and a cognitive label; our interpretation of arousal determines the specific emotion we experience (hearing loud noise behind yourself when walking through a dark alley; beginning to sweat and understand it was a cat and feeling relieved rather than scared)

broaden-and-build theory of emotion

-positive emotions help us think more openly and try new things, making us stronger while negative emotions do the opposite and make us think narrowly and act less (weaker) (using gratitude journal daily and noticing that you appreciate positive aspects of life more than negative aspects)

universal emotions

-idea that certain emotional expressions are recognized and experienced similarly across different cultures (traveler breaking something cherished to the villagers, and the villagers recognizing that expression on the traveler's face is sadness)

display rules

-cultural norms that dictate how, when, and where individuals should express emotions (being frustrated and sad at home after being handed a bad grade on an exam, but reminding neutral around peers at school)

psychodynamic theory

—suggests that personality is shaped by unconscious forces, internal conflicts, and defense mechanisms, originally developed by Sigmund Freud, emphasizing the influence of childhood experiences and unconscious drives (child being told they talk too much no longer speaks and is very anxious about themselves as a teenager)

preconscious mind

-contains thoughts and feelings that are not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily accessed when needed (remembering a helpful formula to help solve a difficult math problem, even though the formula wasn't actively on their mind)

unconscious mind

-consists of processes and memories that are beyond conscious awareness and significantly influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (having a recurring dream about being chased, talking about in therapy, and discovering they felt unsafe in a similar situation; pushed into the unconscious mind and influencing dreams/anxiety)

projective tests

-tools used by psychodynamic personality psychologists to assess personality by eliciting responses that reveal the contents of the preconscious and unconscious mind (being administered the ink blot test and describing what is seen, then having those responses analyzed to uncover thoughts, feelings, and potential conflicts)

ego defense mechanism

-unconscious strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety and perceived threats (parent calling out their child for being lazy when they are really just projecting their own feelings)

denial

-an ego defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously refuses to acknowledge reality or facts, thereby protecting themselves from uncomfortable truths (college student insisting their must be a mistake in the grading or something else tat explains why they received a failing grade for a class)

displacement

-an ego defense mechanism where emotional impulses are redirected from the original source to a safer or more acceptable substitute target (getting into an argument with their roommate due to displacement of anger from an unfair grade on an assignment)

projection

-an ego defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable feelings, thoughts, or motives to someone else, thus deflecting self-criticism (person struggling with feelings of jealousy so they start accusing their partner of being unfaithful without evidence)

rationalization

-ego defense mechanism where individuals justify and explain their behaviors or feelings in a seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid confronting the true underlying reasons (college student fails an exam, and instead of admitting they could've studied, they tell themselves and others that it was unfair and the teacher didn't explain the material well)

reaction formation

-ego defense mechanism where individuals suppress unacceptable impulses by unconsciously displaying the opposite behavior or emotion (feeling a strong attraction toward a colleague but believes it is inappropriate might go out of their way to act cold/indifferent toward the colleague)

repression

-ego defense mechanism where distressing thoughts and feelings are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness (adult in a serious car accident has no memory of the event, possibly completely forgetting about it)

sublimination

-ego mechanism where negative urges and impulses are channeled into socially acceptable or constructive activities (person experiencing intense anger and aggression, and instead of harming, uses these urges in kickboxing class)

rorschach ink blot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

thematic apperception test

projective test requiring examinees to tell a story in response to ambiguous pictures

humanistic psychology

-emphasizes the study of the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual, particularly focusing on self-growth and unconditional positive regard as essential for achieving personal potential (therapist seeing client for the first time and assessing where they are; months later, the client is more confident, etc.)

unconditional regard

an individual is accepted and loved as they are, without any conditions or judgments, fostering personal growth and self-acceptance (teenager confides in parents that they failed an important exam, and the parent provides love and support instead of anger or criticism)

self-actualizing tendency

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

-refers to the innate drive in every individual to grow, develop, and realize their fullest potential (student has a natural talent for science, so they follow their passion for medicine and eventually get accepted into top medical school and are fulfilled)

social-cognitive theory

-emphasizes the influence of cognitive processes, behaviors, and context in understanding personality and human actions (middle school student observing their older sister regularly studying had, using time wisely, and receiving high grades, so the younger sibling reflects these behaviors and gets high grades themselves)

reciprocal determinism

-concept in social-cognitive theory proposing that an individuals behavior, personal factors (like thoughts and emotions), and environment influence each other interactively (study group where members are highly motivated and actively participate in discussions, which motivates the student to engage more/put more effort)

self-concept

-a person's perception of themselves, encompassing self-awareness and the evaluation of their role in relation to others (college student who has always seen themselves as hardworking/diligent faces challenging courses, yet continues to study diligently because they are a dedicated student)

self-efficacy

-the belief in one's own ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task, which plays a crucial role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached (college student who struggles with public speaking but wants to improve because they believe it will help them in the future)

self-esteem

-a person's overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth; it is a judgement of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self (young artist who is passionate about painting, but does not believe it is worthy of submission to a local art competition. they receive 1st place, boosting their self-esteem)

trait theories

-suggests that personality is made up of stable characteristics, called traits, that consistently influence how a person thinks and behaves (student known among their friends for being highly extroverted: energetic, talkative, and enjoy being the center of social gatherings)

big five theory

-identifies five broad dimensions of personality to describe the main traits of human personality (openness: vulnerability, conscientiousness: productiveness, extraversion: sociability, agreeableness: respectfulness, neuroticism: tendencies towards anxiety/depression)

personality inventories

-standardized tools used to assess and measure individuals personality traits and characteristics through self-report questionnaires (employee taking the Big Five Personality Test and receives high scores in openness and conscientiousness but lower scores in extraversion)

factor analysis

-statistical method used to identify clusters or related items (factors) in a set of data by applying to large survey datasets of personality descriptions (using personality questionnaires and employ factor analysis to identify underlying relationships between responses from a student)

openness to experience

-personality trait that encompasses a person's imagination, curiosity, and willingness to engage with new ideas, experiences, and creative pursuits (graphic designer at advertising agency that creates a new campaign for a cutting-edge tech product using innovative concepts, etc.)

conscientiousness

-personality trait marked by organization, dependability, discipline, and a goal-directed approach to life (project manager meticulously planning every detail, creating schedules, and ensuring all team members understand their responsibilities)

extraversion

-personality trait characterized by high levels of social biliary, energy, assertiveness, and a strong preference for social interaction/stimulation (student excelling at organizing social events, enjoys engaging with people, etc.)

agreeableness

-personality trait characterized by warmth, kindness, empathy, and a cooperative and trusting nature (a nurse in the hospital is always friendly, compassionate, and wiling to help both patients and colleagues)

emotional stability

(neuroticism)

-refers to the trait of having consistent emotional reactions, resilience and the ability to remain calm and composed under stress (college student becomes extremely anxious during exam periods, worry excessively, intense feelings of self-doubt, etc.)