Week 10-11: social psychology

psychodynamic perspective

focusing on mental models or representations of the self

cognitive perspective

focusing on the way the self - concept shapes thought and memory

social influence

the process whereby one person's behaviour is affected by the or actions of others

self - concept

the way one thinks of oneself

self - esteem

the evaluations you make about how worthy you are as a human being

social comparison

using other people as a basis of comparison for evaluating oneself

downward social comparison

people sometimes compare themselves with those who are not as good ,

upward social comparison

in which they compare themselves with people who are doing much better than they are , can also create optimism about improving our own performance

reference groups

categories of people with whom individuals compare themselves

relative deprivation

the belief that , in comparison to a reference group , one is getting less than is deserved relative

egoistic relative deprivation

we experience relative deprivation by comparison to other individuals

fraternal relative deprivation

when we feel relatively deprived in relations to a group or collective

Social norms

establish the rules for what should and should not be done in a particular situation

descriptive norms

how most other people actually behave in a given situation.

They tell us what actions are common in the situation and thereby implicitly give us permission to act in the same way

injunctive norms

more specific information about the actions that others find acceptable and those that they find unacceptable . Subtle pressure exists behave in accordance with these norms .

For example , a sign that reads ' Do not cross on red ' or the person next to you saying the same thing communicate injunctive norms

Deindividuation

a psychological state in which people in a group
-temporarily lose their individuality
-focus on the group's norms
-may engage in an antisocial acts that they would not normally perform.

( a person becomes ' submerged in a group ' and loses the sense of individuality )

social loafing

exerting less effort when performing a group task than when performing the same task alone

Social facilitation

Increase performance

social identity

the beliefs we hold about the groups to which we belong

social perception

the process through which people interpret information about others , form impressions of them , and draw conclusions about the reasons for their behaviour .

Role of schemas

-influence what we pay attention to and what we ignore . Characteristics or events that are consistent with our schema about another person usually get more attention than those that are inconsistent with that schema

-Accurate schemas help us categorise people quickly and respond appropriately situations

Incorrect schemas, they can create false expectations and errors in judgement about people that can lead to narrow mindedness and even prejudice

First impressions

The schemas we have about people in general act as lenses that shape our first impressions of others

-formed easily and quickly
-change slowly

Self - fulfilling prophecies

a process through which our expectations about another person cause us to act in ways that lead the person to behave as we expected

Attribution

the process of explaining the causes of people's behaviour , including our own .

influential theory

Harold Kelley 1973- people are most likely to make internal attributions about an actor's behaviour when there is low consensus high consistency and low distinctiveness

consensus

the degree to which other people's behaviour is similar to that of the actor

consistency

the degree to which the behaviour is the same across time or situations ( difficult to ascertain without information about distinctiveness )

distinctiveness

the extent to which the actor's response to one situation stands out from responses to similar situations .

the fundamental attribution error

a tendency to overattribute the behaviour of others to internal factors

ultimate attribution error.

members of a social or out - group positive we attribute their behaviour to luck or some other external cause . we attribute their negative behaviour to an internal cause

-When an in - group ( people we see as being like ourselves ) do good deeds , we attribute the behaviour to integrity or other internal factors . If they do something bad, we attribute it to some external cause.

the actor - observer effect

the tendency to attribute other people's behaviour to internal causes while attributing our own behaviour ( especially errors and failures ) to external causes

the self - serving bias .

the tendency to attribute our successes to internal characteristics while blaming our failures on external causes Self

Unrealistic optimism

The tendency to believe that good things will happen to us but that bad things will not

attitude

the tendency to respond positively or negatively to a particular object . Attitudes affect a wide range of behaviours

three components of attitude

1.cognitive components ( beliefs ) 2.affective components ( feelings ) 3.behavioural components ( actions ) .

mere-exposure effect

all else being equal, people develop a greater liking for a new object the more often they are exposed to it.

Attitudes can be learnt through modelling , as classical or operant conditioning .

The elaboration likelihood model

attitude change can occur carefully consider an argument and the motivation to do so . Accordingly , through either a peripheral or a central route , depending on a person's ability to different messages will produce attitude change under different circumstances .

The elaboration likelihood model -Central Route

Audience -Motivated, analytical
Processing -High effort evaluate message
Persuasion -Lasting change attitude

The elaboration likelihood model Peripheral Route

Audience -Not motivated not analytical
Processing- Low effort persuaded by cues outside of message
Persuasion-Temporary change in attitude

The effectiveness of a persuasive message in changing attitudes is influenced by

1.the characteristics of the person who communicates it
2.its content
3. the audience receiving it .

Cognitive dissonance theory

if inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour creates discomfort related to a person's self - concept or self - image , the person will be motivated to reduce that discomfort or conflict by changing the attitudes that are inconsistent with the behaviour .

Self perception theory limitation

-First brain imaging studies have found that specific patterns of brain activity are associated with the experience of cognitive dissonance and that the appearance of these patterns strongly predicts the appearance of attitude change

-Second , people adjust their attitudes to match their behaviour even when they are unable to reflect on that behaviour a process that is crucial to self-perception theory

Self - perception theory

attitudes can change as people consider their behaviour in certain situations and then infer what their attitude must be .

This process makes their attitudes consistent with their behaviour , but the process is not driven by tension or discomfort .

The person says , ' If I did that under those circumstances my attitude must be this ' .

Self - perception theory limitation

-First brain - imaging studies have found that specific patterns of brain activity are associated with the experience of cognitive dissonance and that the appearance of these patterns strongly predicts the appearance of attitude change

-Second, people adjust their attitudes to match their behaviour even when they are unable to reflect on that behaviour, a process that is crucial to self-perception theory.

stereotype

a false assumption that all members of some group share the same characteristics

prejudice

a positive or negative attitude towards a entire group of people

social discrimination

the differential treatment . various groups ; the behavic component of prejudice

contact hypothesis

the idea that stereotypes and prejudice towards a group will diminish as contact with the group increases

Prejudice -Motivational theories

prejudice enhances a person's sense of security and helps them meet needs

stereotypes Cognitive theories

stereotyping and prejudice stem from social - cognitive processes people use to make sense of the world

prejudice Learning theories

prejudice learnt through conflict or from others

matching hypothesis

the notion that people are most likely to form relationships with those who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness

Keys to attraction

1. The environment -simple physical proximity of another person can increase liking or even a person who resembles someone close to us.

2. Similarity - people tend to like people who are similar to themselves

3. Physical attractiveness - can be an important factor in attraction

Physical proximity /situation /Characteristics

Physical proximity is important because it allows people to meet .

The situation in which they meet is important because positive or negative aspects of the situation tend to be associated with the other person .

Characteristics of the other person are also important .

Attraction tends to be greater when..

two people share similar attitudes and characteristics

Physical appearance

plays a role in attraction initially, and attraction is strongest to those who are most physically attractive to us.

For long-term relationships, the matching hypothesis applies; that is, people tend to choose others whose physical attractiveness is about the same as theirs.

Two key components of intimate relationships

interdependence and mutual commitment

Sternberg's triangular theory

love is a function of three components : 1.passion 2.intimacy 3.commitment

Passionate love

intense arousing and marked by both strong physical attraction and deep emotional attachment .
Sexual feelings are strong , and thoughts of the loved one intrude frequently on a person's awareness

Companionate love the

is less arousing but psychologically more intimate. It is marked by mutual concern for the welfare of the other and a willingness to disclose personal information and feelings.

People who experience companionate love seem especially satisfied with their lives.

descriptive norms

indicate how most other people behave in a given situation. They tell us what actions are common in the situation and thereby implicitly permit us to act in the same way

injunctive norms

give more specific information about the actions that others find acceptable and those that they find unacceptable . Subtle pressure exists to behave in accordance with these norms

conformity

changing one behaviour or beliefs to match those of others , generally a a result of real or imagined though unspoken , group pressure

compliance

adjusting on behaviour because of an ex or implicit request

public conformity

giving an answer they did not believe simply because it was the socially desirable thing to do

private acceptance

use other people's responses as legitimate evidence about reality, were convinced that their own perceptions were wrong, and actually changed their minds

compliance

involves changing what you say or do or adjusting your behaviour because of a direct request , which can be explicit or implicit .

most often achieved with a direct approach .

the foot - in the - door technique

starts with a small request and builds up to a larger one

the door - in - the - face technique

After making a large request that is denied , the person substitutes the less extreme alternative that was desired all along

the lowball technique

a verbal commitment is gained , and then the person proposes that only a higher-cost version will be acceptable

Conformity

-A change in behaviour or beliefs to match those of others

Conformity tendency

People tend to follow the normative responses of others , and groups create norms when none already exist .

People conform because they want to be right because they want to be liked and because they tend to be rewarded for conformity

People are most likely to conform when the situation is unclear
-when others in the group are in unanimous agreement .

Up to a point , conformity usually increases as the number of people holding the majority view grows larger .

Obedience

involves complying with an explicit demand from an authority figure.

Research by Milgram indicates that it is likely even when obeying an authority appears to result in pain and suffering for another person.

Obedience declines

the status of the authority figure declines , when others are observed to disobey and if a victim asks to be released.

aggression

an act that is intended to cause harm to another person

excitation transfer

arousal from one experience may carry over to an independent situation

Therefore, the physiological arousal caused by jogging may intensify your reaction to an insult.

generalised arousal

By itself, arousal does not lead to aggression . It is most likely to produce aggression when the situation contains some reason, opportunity or target for aggression.



people engaged in two minutes of vigorous exercise. Then they had the opportunity to deliver an electrical shock to another person . The participants chose high levels of shock only if they were first insulted

environmental psychology

the study of relationship between behav and the physical environme

Why are people aggressive ?

-Genetic influences include heredity and brain damage that causes defensive aggression

-A biological mechanism for aggression is testosterone .

-Drugs that alter central nervous system functioning are also influential

-Effect of drugs- alter central nervous system functioning

-Accumulated experiences ( including cultural teachings ) also affect aggressive behaviour

-Learning and culture play a role ; e.g. , observational learning

-Violent video games may increase aggression

When are people aggressive ?

-physiologically aroused

-experience hostile/angry thoughts or feelings

-already frustrated or stressed

-generally aroused, such as after jogging

-Stressful environmental conditions can create enough arousal to increase aggressive behaviour ; e.g. , weather and noise

helping behaviour prosocial behaviour

act that is intended to benefit another person

altruism

an unselfish concern for another person's welfare

bystander effect

a phenomenon in which the chances that someone will help in an emergency decrease as the number of people present increases

empathy - altruism helping theory

suggests that people help others because they feel empathy towards them

The frustration - aggression hypothesis

frustration can lead to aggression , particularly cues that invite or promote aggression are present .

the arousal : cost - reward theory

people help to reduce the unpleasant arousal they experience when others are in distress. while considering the costs involved in helping.

The empathy - altruism theory

helping can be truly unselfish if the helper feels empathy for the person in need

Evolutionary theory

humans have an innate tendency to help others , especially relatives , because doing so increases the likelihood that family genes will survive

cooperation

any type of behaviour in which people together to attain a goal

competition

behaviour in which individuals try to attain a goal for themselves while denying that goal to others

conflict

the result of a person's or group's belief that another person or group stands in the way of their achieving a valued goal

cooperation

any type of behaviour in which people work together to attain a goal

social dilemma

a situation in which actions that produce rewards for one individual will produce negative consequences if adopted by everyone

prisoner's dilemma game

a social dilemma scenario in which mutual cooperation guarantees the best mutual outcome

zero - sum game

a social situation in which one person's gains are subtracted from another person's resources so that the sum of the gains and losses is zero

social facilitation

a phenomenon in which the presence of others improves a person's performance

social interference

a reduction in performance due to the presence of other people

task - oriented leader

a leader who provides close supervision , leads by directives and generally discourages group discussion

relationship - oriented leader

a leader who provides loose supervision , asks for group members ' ideas and is concerned with subordinates ' feelings

Communication

The act that can reduce people's tendency to act competitively