Psy 316 - Midterm 3

What is language?
A. System of symbols that allow us to communicate
B. The principal method of human communication, consisting of words used in a structured way and conveyed by speech, writing, or gesture
C. The imparting or exchanging of information or news though conversation
D. A system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols

A. System of symbols that allow us to communicate

___________ believes things are represented by symbols that have no inherent relationship between them.

Arbitrary

_____________ is the fact that words fall into different categories, and word order matters

Grammar (syntax is also acceptable)

_________________ processes are knowing what words look like

Orthographic

_____________ are words that differ in only one letter

Orthographic Neighborhoods

What are two aspects involved in different approaches to reading?

-Words can come from consistent or inconsistent families
-Nonwords with consistent bodies (nust) named faster than inconsistent ones (mave)

____________ refers to the patterns of pauses and pitch changes that characterize speech production.

Prosody

_________________ is how the sentence is actually spoken/written

Surface structure

Explain the two relationship/ aspects between deep and surface structure. Provide an example for each.

-Sentences can differ in surface structure, but not deep structure. (Ex. "Mary broke the window" and "The window was broken by Mary") (ex2. What i do with these quizlets)
-Sentence can have the same surface structure, different deep structure. (Ex. "The girl hit [the man with the umbrella]." and "The girl hit the man [with the umbrella].")

Which of the following is an example of quality in Gricean Maxims?
A. "Avoid obscurity of expression."
B. "Make your contribution as informative as is required."
C. "Be relevant."
D. "Do not say what you believe to be false."

D. "Do not say what you believe to be false."

___________ is a previously experienced syntactic structure influences current processing

Syntactic priming

____________ is the idea that language that you speak influences thinking

Whorfian Hypothesis

_______________ occurs when an adult takes a child's utterance and expands on its complexity.

Expansion

Which is not a concern about studying bilingualism?
A. Cultural Insider vs cultural outsider
B. Balanced vs unbalanced
C. Simultaneous vs. sequential
D. Early vs late

A. Cultural Insider vs cultural outsider

______________ is switching between languages in the context of a single conversation

Code switching

____________ is a process in which one begins by deciding on a goal and seeks steps that will lead to that goal.

Problem solving

What example is used in this class when discussing the process of problem solving?
A. Painting a picture
B. Running a race
C. Driving a car
D. Searching in a maze

D. Searching in a maze

Describe hill-climbing strategy and give an example.

-At each step in solving a problem, choose the option that moves you in the direction of your goal.
-Ex. (Main goal) Anne wants to get a dog. (Step 1) She needs to move, so she moves to a house/ pet-friendly apartment
(Other examples are welcome)

____________ is when we can talk about things that are not currently there

Situational freedom

____________ is when we form new combinations to represent new ideas

Productivity

_____________ is when new words are formed, and words get new meanings, new phrases

Generativity

What are the main issues when comparing animal language with human
language?

-Extremely limited relative to human language
-Do not support generativity

What are at some differences for speech perception and reading perception?

-Speech unfolds over time, reading unfolds over space
-Speech can go away, reading doesn't
-Speech doesn't contain clear word boundaries
-Speech is generally more ambiguous
-Listeners can't control the rate of input
-Speech contains other cues - pitch, stress,
timing

_________ are the smallest unit of language that carries meaning.

Morpheme

How is language organized?

-Morphemes and phonemes make up words
-Stringing words together makes sentences
-Sentences are used to express thoughts and ideas

What are the two types of morphemes? (Describe them)

-Free: Units that can stand alone (ex. umpire, talk)
-Bound: Often mark tense, number, part of speech (ex. -er, -s, -ed)

_________ are the smallest unit of sounds that makes two words different.

Phonemes

What are the three different modifications that lead to different sounds? How are each described (in the class)?

-Voicing: vocal folds opened and closed rapidly
-Manner of production: how is airflow restricted?
-Place of articulation: where is airflow restricted?

___________ is the production of phonemes changes with context.

Co-articulation

What are some factors to speech perceptions, when it comes to different sounds?

-Features that make sounds different to produce are the features that tell you what sound you're hearing
-All speakers are different - vocal apparatus, rate, accent -Most speech is degraded - lots of background noise

What are some aspect of categorical perception?

- You are better at hearing differences between sound categories than variation within a category
- Artificial ambiguous phonemes (think the /ba/ and /pa/ example)
-Even though the stimuli varys gradually, there is an abrupt change in what you perceive
-your auditory system has divided the world of possible stimuli, not variation within them

__________________ involves breaking speech stream into appropriate parts (words, letters).

Speech Segmentation

_______________ are the chances that one sound will follow another sound.

Transactional Probabilities

What are some aspects involved in speech segmentation?

-It's a big challenge to figure out where one word stops and the next one starts
-Some sequences of sounds don't occur within words
-stress on words and syllables/ initial syllable is more likely stressed

_________________ processes are knowing what words sound like.

Phonologiacal

_________________ processes are knowing what words mean

Semantic

_________ are a basic unit of written language (sometimes a letter, sometimes a combination (sh)).

Grapheme

What are some of the aspects of reading processes?

-You don't need to access the sound of words in order to read
-In practice, though, you already have a spoken vocabulary
-Evidence that phonology is accessed during word identification

What are some of the aspects involved in the different routes of reading?

-There are rules that let you figure out what a word sounds like based on how it is spelled
-English is irregular - the mapping between sounds and spelling is not perfect

Describe the lexical and non-lexical routes of reading.

Non-lexical:
-Uses grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences (sound it out)
-Allows you to read novel/non-words
Lexical:
-Uses orthographic input lexicon linked to phonological representation of whole word
-Allows you to read irregular words

____________ are rules that govern the order of words in a phrase or sentence.

Syntax (grammar is also acceptable)

____________________ are rules that list the elements that must appear in a phrase and the order they appear.

Phrase structure rules

_____________ is figuring out the syntactic role of each word in a sentence

Sentence Parsing

What are the three aspects involved in prosody?

-Emphasize elements of a sentence
-Highlight the sentence's intended structure
-Signal the difference between a question and an assertion

_______________ are when you are initially led to one interpretation, but that first impression is wrong.

Garden path Sentence

What are two important aspects in the background knowledge of sentence parsing?

-Plausibility
-Eye movement

_____________ is the physical and social setting in which you encounter sentences

Extralinguisitic context

________________ is the abstract level in which all of the elements determining structure are represented

Deep structure

What are some aspects of the N400?

-ERP components are important when studying sentence
comprehension
-Negative components peak at about 400 ms post-stimulus onset
-Bigger N400 indicates that something unexpected has
happened

______________ is how language is ordinarily used

Pragmatic

What are some of the aspects apart of Gricean Maxims?

-Conversations are cooperative events and partners need to know certain rules to interact
-Cooperation is built around quality, quantity, manner, and relation

Which of the following is an example of quantity in Gricean Maxims?
A. "Avoid obscurity of expression."
B. "Make your contribution as informative as is required."
C. "Be relevant."
D. "Do not say what you believe to be false."

B. "Make your contribution as informative as is required."

Which of the following is an example of manner in Gricean Maxims?
A. "Avoid obscurity of expression."
B. "Make your contribution as informative as is required."
C. "Be relevant."
D. "Do not say what you believe to be false."

A. "Avoid obscurity of expression."

Which of the following is an example of relation in Gricean Maxims?
A. "Avoid obscurity of expression."
B. "Make your contribution as informative as is required."
C. "Be relevant."
D. "Do not say what you believe to be false."

C. "Be relevant."

What are the are two examples of not following maxims?

-Lie or ramble
-Speakers can also "flout" a maxim to convey meaning (ex. Irony)

What are three aspects of implicatures?

-Implicatures occur when a speaker chooses to flout a maxim
-Listener, assuming that speaker is still being cooperative, looks for meaning beyond what is being said
-Intended meaning arrived at through working through pragmatic force, not pure semantics
-can vary in context

__________________ are a fundamental mismatch between type of statement you say and the type of statement you mean.

Indirect Speech Acts

___________ is a shared knowledge and beliefs between speaker and listener.

Common ground

______________ is the development of mutual shorthand and shared vocabulary.

Lexical entrainment

Which of the following is not a part of language learned by age 3 or 4?
A. Learn grammatical rules
B. Understand indirect speech acts
C. Learn vocabulary
D. Learn speech sounds and boundaries between words

B. Understand indirect speech acts

What are some aspects of behaviorism in learning language?

-Language is learned through process of stimulus and response
-Children learn language by imitating the language of those around them
-Correct responses to the language of others and correct language use is rewarded

What are some arguments against behaviorism in learning language?

-The language that children hear does have many examples for them to learn the correct rule
-Studies of parent-child interaction show that parents reward grammatically incorrect utterances that are truthful
-Comprehension precedes production ("wabbit vs rabbit" example)
-Children can produce things their parents haven't said

What are some aspects to Chomsky's General Approach to language?

-Language abilities explained in terms of a complex system of rules and principles represented in the minds of speakers
-Language skills are innate in humans
-Language is modular

______________ is a innate mental structure that makes learning language easier

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

What are some aspects of universal grammar?

-you are not born knowing a language, but born with innate knowledge of certain universal structures
-there is a set of innate, abstract linguistic rules/parameters about what is possible in human language
-Children use experience to discover rules of their particular language

What are some criticisms of Chomsky's theory?

-Nobody has specified all the details of the nature of universal grammar.
-Grammar isn't learned as rapidly as you would expect if all you're learning is to set parameters.
-If the LAD is a biological entity, it should be possible to damage it.

____________ is when parents speak in a higher pitch, stress important words, and talk more slowly to infants.

Infant-directed Speech

_____________ is the deliberate use of language at a level that is slightly beyond what children can comprehend.

Scaffolding

What are some aspects learned about bilingualism and the brain?

-Second language activates more similar brain areas if both languages are learned early
-More similar patterns of activation if task is more semantic in nature

What are two positive impacts of bilingualism?

-More aware that names assigned to things are arbitrary
-Bilingual children show advantages when instructions change from trial to trial

What parts of language are controlled by the left and right hemispheres?

Left:
-Understanding speech
-Determining meaning and cause-effect relationships
Right:
-Interpret emotional tone of speech
-Understand humor and non-obvious relationships

__________ is the disruption of language in individuals with brain damage.

Aphasia

Compare and contrast Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia.

Compare:
-both are caused by brain damage (most common is strokes)
-both disrupt and affect language
Contrast:
Broca's: Slow, non-fluent speech/ Leave out pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, helping verbs, tenses, and numbers/ Speech comprehension relatively spared
endings/ caused by damage to Broca's area (left inferior frontal)
Wernicke's: Fluent and apparently grammatical speech/ Speech lacking in meaning/ anomia/ caused by damage to Wernicke's area (left temporal)

___________ is a difficulty with naming objects.

Anomia

_____________ is a specific impairment of reading in someone with adequate vision, motivation, and cognitive skill.

Dyslexia

Explain surface and deep dyslexia.

Surface:
-lexical procedure lost (can't recognize words and particular difficulty with exception words)
-non-lexical procedure spared (can sound out non-words)
Deep:
-lexical procedure spared (can recognize words)
-non-lexical procedure lost (can't read non-words)

What are some aspects of dyslexia and the brain?

-it is associated with mild abnormality in various brain structures that suggest a biological predisposition
-More likely to have a bilateral symmetrical cerebral cortex
-Less activation in the parietal and temporal cortex while reading

________________ is a diagnosed when language does not develop normally and you cannot account for difficulties with general slow development, hearing loss, etc.

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD)

_________ is an average of various categorymembers that have been encountered

Prototype

Resemblance to prototype determines whether something is a member of the category
A. True
B. False

A. True

what ere the three tasks that can be done to test a prototype? (Try to explain or give examples of each)

-Sentence verification task - is the sentence true or false?
-Production task - naming as many of X as possible (ex. Name as many dogs as possible)
-Rating task - determining whether or not a thing is thing enough (ex. If a dog is dog enough)

______________ is a specific, remembered instance

Exemplar

What are 3 reasons provided as to why category don't always equal typicality?

- Category judgments can be based on something other than typicality
-Atypical features do not exclude category members
-Something can have all the typical features but not be a
category member

____________________ have beliefs about category membership and which properties are essential depend on broader understandings.

Transformations

What are two parts of heuristic strategies?

-Reasonably efficient and works most of time
-Accept some risk of error in order to gain efficiency

Which of the following is a example of using category heuristics?
A. You see a rock in the park, but call it a frog because it is next to a pond.
B. You see a ball in a park and call it a ball.
C. There is a thing in the distance walking on all fours and covered in fur, so you assume it is a dog.
D. You argue that a penguin is not a bird because it doesn't fit in the catagory

C. There is a thing in the distance walking on all fours and covered in fur, so you assume it is a dog.

_____________ are implicit "theories" about concepts

Explanatory theories

What are some aspects of explanatory theories?

-Concepts link to other concepts
-Each category caries with it beliefs
-Leads to cause-and-effect understanding of why things are the way they are

Knowledge is stored in memory network.
A. True
B. False

A. True

What are the important aspects of the knowledge network?

-Remember that the memory network lets activation spread quickly to highly related concepts
-Store properties at highest level possible
-Evidence for the knowledge in a network comes from the sentence-verification task

Explain Propositional and Connectionist network.

Propositional:
-AKA Localist representations
-each node is equivalent to one concept
- they are fragile
Connectionist:
-AKA Distributed processing
-information involves a pattern of activation
-can't attach meaning to firing of any one node

_____________ are cognitive shortcuts or rules of thumb

Heuristics

_____________ is when one useseasily available information that is a substitute for the information you actually need.

Attribute substitution

Explain availability and representativeness heuristics, and try to give examples for both.

Availability:
-Ease with which examples come to mind substituted for frequency or likelihood
-Ex. Who washes the dishes more often, you or your
roommates?
Representativeness:
-Assess similarity of stimulus to prototype to determine category membership; Assume that similarity in one aspect leads to similarity in other aspects
-Ex. Do you assume anything about someone if you discover that she is a lawyer or an engineer?

______________ is the relationship between two variable, can be negative or positive.

Covariation

______________ is information about the likelihood of an event

Base-rate information

What make a person less likely to ignore base rate information?

-If information is conveyed in frequencies
-Role of chance is conspicuous
-Causality is clear

Explain type 1 and type 2 thinking in the dual-process models.

-type 1 refers to thinking that is fast, automatic, and uses heuristics
-type 2 refers to thinking that is slower, effortful, and more likely to be correct

What are two things that determine whether type 1 or type 2 thinking is used?

-context of the decisions
-how the problem is presented

____________ is a pattern of reasoning in which one seeks to draw general claims from specific bits of evidence

Induction