AP Psych- Unit 4

Social psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

attribution theory

the theory that we tend to give a causal explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

situational attribution

when we attribute a persons behavior to the situation

dispositional attribution

when we attribute ones behavior to their personality and discount impacts of the situation

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor-observer effect

seeing the world from the actor's perception we better appreciate the situation, how we view something from the outside or in the actor's view

central route persuasion

Occurs when people think carefully about a message & are influenced because they find the arguements compelling

peripheral route persuasion

when people do not scrutinize the message but are influenced mostly by other factors such as speakers attractiveness - people respond to incidental cues, attractiveness, celebrity endorsement, etc. (faster judgements)

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

people agree to a small action and then are more likely to agree to a larger one -Cialdini

familiarity effect

being familiar/ recognizing with something and thus being affected by it (ex: oreo)

validity effect

By repeatedly exposing people to a given stimulus, their neutral feeling regarding it will eventually give way to increased likeability. In other words, the more someone is exposed to something, the more they will like or accept it (ex: I've heard it a lot, so it's probably true)

role

the set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent

conformity

adjusting behavior and thinking toward a group standard, Asch developed the line test

normative social influence

we understand social norms because the price for being different is severe, influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

social facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

deindividuation

abandoning normal restraints to power of group, loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (ex: KKK, riots, food fights, tribal masks, etc.)

entrapment

A decision making process whereby individuals escalate their commitment to a previously chosen, though failing, course of action in order to justify or 'make good on' a prior investment

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

culture norm

rules for accepted and expected behavior

personal space

body buffer zone! (personal bubble please)

Prejudice

an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual's membership of a social group

Stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people

ethnocentrism

a belief that ones own race or culture is best

contact hypothesis

interaction/ contact can help people accept each other

discrimination

predisposition to action (the prejudiced beliefs may influence such acts) -unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

implicit and explicit attitudes

internal and external attitudes (what we really feel vs. what we show or say on the outside)

Implicit Association Test

test what people associate other people with (ex: islam = violence)

Ingroup

us - a social group that one identifies with

Outgroup

them - those people who do not belong to a specific in-group"

ingroup bias

bias or favoratism shown for those in ones own group - people like their own group best

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

social identity

we associate ourselves with certain groups and contrast ourselves with others

ethnic identity

we associate ourselves with a certain ethnicity and contrast ourselves with others

just-world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

victim blaming

people think that the victim is partly to blame for their situation

aggression

any physical/verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

frustration-aggression principle

The principle that frustration--the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal--creates anger, which can generate aggression.

mere-exposure effect

familiarity breeds fondness - the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

altruism

unselfish regard for welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

diffusion of responsibility

as in the bystander effect, people feel less responsible when in the presence of others

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

we help others who have helped us - expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

self-fulfilling prophecy

influence makes you act so that it comes true (Ex: You think he hates you, so you act coldly to him. He is offended and thus does hate you)

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

attitude

feelings that influence our thoughts, actions, etc.

Social-Responsibility Norm

an expectation that people will help those that are dependent on them

collectivism

the practice or principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it

framing effect

An example of cognitive bias, in which people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented

confirmation bias

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories

Social Norms

rules of behavior (mostly unwritten) that are considered acceptable in a group or society

role-playing

The acting out of a behavioral role or assumed character, as in therapy or education to expand awareness of differing points of view

compliance (social compliance)

changing one's behavior due to the request or direction of another person or group

out-group bias

negative bias shown against those not in your "in-group"

Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group. Stereotype threat is purportedly a contributing factor to long-standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance

outgroup homogeneity bias

the assumption that outgroup members are more similar to one another than ingroup members are to one another

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychodynamic theories

Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

Fixation

in psychoanalytic theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus on pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

group identification

a feeling of belonging to a certain group of people based on a set of values and an assurance of security

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

emotional stability-instability

emotionally stable people react calmly because their autonomic nervous systems are not so reactive as those of emotionally unstable/neurotic people

Extraversion/Introversion

The extent to which people are social or unsocial, talkative or quiet, affectionate or reserved (more social, talkative, affectionate)

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Big Five Personality Traits

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

person-situation controversy

the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment