PSYC 325 - Multiple Choice Questions

A team of social psychologists is studying whether people are more likely to help strangers in urban versus rural settings. They set up a staged situation in which a confederate drops a stack of papers in both environments, and record how often passersby stop to help. What kind of research are they conducting?

a. Basic research

b. Experimental realism

c. Correlational research

d. Applied research

a. Applied research (the study aims to expand knowledge on real-life pro-social behaviour and factors that impact helping behaviour in a real-life setting)

In a study examining the effect of music on studying, participants are randomly assigned to either a quiet room or a room playing background music. After 30 minutes, their memory of a word list is tested. In this experiment, the dependent variable is:

a. The presence or absence of music

b. The participants' mood during the session

c. The memory test performance

d. The participants’ music preferences

c. The memory test performance (the memory test performance depends on the type of room participants are assigned to)

Researchers want to test whether stress leads to more aggressive behavior. However, their measurement of “aggression” is vague, and different observers code behaviors inconsistently. What issue are the researchers facing?

a. High interrater reliability

b. Low construct validity

c. Low internal validity

d. High experimental realism

b. Low construct validity (the study is not accurately measuring what it is supposed to measure)

A psychologist publishes a study showing a link between eating breakfast and GPA in college students. However, since no variables were manipulated and no causal conclusions were drawn, the study was most likely:

a. Experimental research

b. A case study

c. Correlational research

d. A meta-analysis

c. Correlational research (consists of an observation of two variables without any manipulation of those variables to see if they are connected)

A study shows that people exposed to happy images are more likely to rate others as friendly. Before beginning, participants are told the study is about "image processing speed." What technique is being used here

a. Experimental realism

b. Informed consent

c. Deception

d. Operational definition

c. Deception (deceiving participants about the purpose of the study)

In a study on memory and caffeine, the researchers unintentionally hint to participants that they expect better performance from those who drank coffee. This might influence how participants behave. This is an example of:

a. Mundane realism

b. A confound

c. Experimenter expectancy effects

d. The bogus pipeline technique

c. Experimenter expectancy effects (researchers with expectations about the study’s outcomes unintentionally influences participant behaviour)

A researcher runs a study on how people react to authority and tries to make the lab setting resemble a military base. This effort is most clearly related to:

a. Mundane realism

b. Experimental realism

c. Random sampling

d. Meta-analysis

a. Mundane realism (the experimenter tries to have the study imitate real life as closely as possible)

Before conducting an experiment, researchers upload their hypothesis, methods, and planned analyses to an open-access site to promote transparency. This practice is called:

a. Preregistration

b. Debriefing

c. Peer review

d. Open science framework

a. Preregistration (publishing the study design before going through with the study)

A researcher studying persuasion recruits participants through a random list of phone numbers, ensuring that everyone in the population had an equal chance of being included. This method best illustrates:

a. Random assignment

b. Operational definition

c. Random sampling

d. Subject variables

c. Random sampling (picking subjects randomly from the population of interest)

In a study, participants are shown fake results from a lie detector and are told it can detect when they are lying, even though it’s nonfunctional. This setup is used to get more honest responses. What technique is this?

a. Bogus pipeline technique

b. Debriefing

c. Subject variables

d. Experiment

a. Bogus pipeline technique (deceptive lie detector technique used by researchers to get more honest responses)

A political scientist is interested in whether women and men differ in their attitudes toward climate policy. Because gender cannot be manipulated, it is treated in the study as a(n):

a. Independent variable

b. Dependent variable

c. Confound

d. Subject variable

d. Subject variable (a variable that can’t be assigned or manipulated that is a characteristic of the subjects of the study)

After running multiple studies on how early attachment styles impact adult communication in romantic and familial relationships, a researcher uses statistical tools to combine and analyze the results from 30 separate studies. This method is called:

a. Replication

b. Meta-analysis

c. Correlational research

d. Random assignment

b. Meta-analysis (combining and analyzing the results of various studies from the same topic to determine overall trends)

In the classic 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment, participants were randomly assigned to play the roles of guards or prisoners in a simulated prison environment. The study was abruptly ended due to the extreme behavior displayed by participants, many of whom were unaware of how intense the experience would become. Following the experiment, the research team held extended discussions with participants to explain the true purpose of the study and to address any psychological harm caused. This post-study process is an example of:

a. Informed consent

b. Debriefing

c. Construct validity

d. Mundane realism

b. Debriefing (letting participants know about the true purpose of the study and informing them of any form of deception used after the study is performed)

Jacob develops a study examining how people’s moods change after seeing different videos. Participants who watched a sad video had a decline in their mood, whereas those who watched the happy videos had an improved mood. Marc, believes that the participants who watched the happy video may have just been happier people to begin with. What can Jacob use as evidence to refute Marc’s claim?

a. Random sampling

b. Subject variables

c. Random assignment

d. Experimental realism

c. Random assignment (participants are randomly assigned to either condition to reduce the influence of subject variables)

Before participating in a study involving mild electric shocks, participants are given a detailed description of the procedures and risks, and are told they can withdraw at any time. This process illustrates:

a. Construct validity

b. Experimental realism

c. Informed consent

d. Interrater reliability

c. Informed consent (explaining the risks involved with the study before it begins)

Researchers predict that people will be more generous after watching a heartwarming video. This prediction is based on a broader explanation of emotional priming and behaviour that has been supported by decades of research. This explanation is an example of a(n):

a. Hypothesis

b. Theory

c. Confound

d. Operational definition

b. Theory (an explanation for a phenomenon based on evidence)

A group of researchers is studying whether people behave more rudely when they are hungry. To measure “rudeness,” they count the number of times participants interrupt a conversation during a staged social interaction. This specific measurement of rudeness best illustrates:

a. Construct validity

b. Confound

c. Operational definition

d. Random sampling

c. Operational definition (the way in which a variable is measured or operationalized within the context of research)

A team of psychologists wants to test whether people are more likely to conform to a group’s opinion when they are being observed. To do this, they manipulate whether participants believe they are alone or being watched by peers while completing a visual judgment task, and then measure how often they go along with incorrect answers. What kind of research design are they using?

a. Correlational study

b. Experiment

c. Meta-analysis

d. Subject variable comparison

b. Experiment (involving the manipulation of variables)

A study finds that students perform better on math problems when they listen to classical music. However, the same students are tested in a quiet room in the control group and in a decorated, brightly lit room in the experimental group. The researchers cannot be sure whether the improvement is due to the music or the room’s environment. What aspect of the study is compromised?

a. External validity

b. Construct validity

c. Internal validity

d. Operational definition

c. Internal validity (more than one variable differs between groups [music and room design], leading to uncertainty about what caused the outcome)

A researcher is interested in studying the effects of social anxiety on group performance. In the study, researchers survey individuals and separate them into groups based on their level of self-reported social anxiety. Each group is asked to perform a task and researchers note the number of times each participant exhibits a nervous tick. In this case, “social anxiety” is a:

a. Dependent variable

b. Conceptual variable

c. Operational variable

d. Random variable

b. Conceptual variable (a broad concept that researchers want to study)

A student at Concordia University majoring in history writes a paper about the viking tribes that contributed to the downfall of the Roman Empire. He reads books and examines old library archives to write his paper. This research is an example of:

a. Descriptive research

b. Probability sampling

c. Correlational research

d. Causal research

a. Descriptive research (describing an event in history by using archival data)

Which of the following is NOT a necessary characteristic of causal relationships?

a. Variables must be related

b. No alternative explanations exist for relationships

c. Causal variable precedes the outcome

d. Variables must have a positive correlation

d. Variables must have a positive correlation

Steven attempts to establish a causal relationship between a new cancer drug and cancer reduction. He conducts a study and finds a positive correlation between drug intake and cancer reduction, leading him to the conclusion that the new drug is causing the reduction in cancer. What mistake is Steven making, if any?

a. Steven’s drug research is unethical in this case

b. He is not making any mistakes

c. Steven cannot determine causation from a correlation

d. Steven’s variables are unrelated

c. Steven cannot determine causation from a correlation

A study examining the intensity of shared experiences splits participants into two groups: one group has participants eating chocolate alone, whereas the other group’s members eat chocolate with another participant (Boothby et al., 2014). After they ate the chocolate, participants were asked how much they enjoyed the chocolate. What is the independent variable in this study?

a. How much participants enjoyed the chocolate

b. Whether or not the experience was shared

c. The type of chocolate given to participants

d. The gender differences in each group

b. Whether or not the experience was shared (the manipulated variable in this case)

A researcher finds that people donate more to charity when exposed to images of suffering animals. The statistical analysis shows a p-value of 0.03. What is the most accurate interpretation of this result?

a. There is a 3% chance the hypothesis is true.

b. There is a 3% chance the results occurred due to random chance if the null hypothesis were true.

c. There is a 97% chance the experimental manipulation caused the effect.

d. The effect size is large enough to be meaningful in real-world settings.

b. There is a 3% chance the results occurred due to random chance if the null hypothesis were true.

A team of researchers is studying emotional expression during job interviews. Two trained coders independently watch video recordings and rate each participant’s level of visible anxiety on a 1–10 scale. To ensure that the measurement is consistent and not dependent on any one rater’s opinion, the researchers compare the scores from the two coders. This comparison is intended to assess:

a. Construct validity

b. Interrater realism

c. Experimental realism

d. Interrater reliability

d. Interrater reliability (the degree to which different observers agree on their observations

Researchers are studying whether people feel more confident when wearing formal versus casual clothing. They randomly assign half of the participants to wear formal clothing and the other half to wear casual clothing, then measure their self-reported confidence. This study uses a:

a. Correlational design

b. Within-subjects design

c. Between-subjects design

d. Longitudinal design

c. Between-subjects design (because each participant only experiences one condition)

A researcher wants to test whether music tempo affects how quickly people complete puzzles. Each participant solves one puzzle while listening to slow music and another puzzle while listening to fast music. This study uses a:

a. Cross-sectional design

b. Between-subjects design

c. Quasi-experimental design

d. Within-subjects design

d. Within-subjects design (because each participant experiences all conditions)

The theory of how we explain why people do the things they do is known as:

a. Impression management theory

b. Social dominance theory

c. Cognitive dissonance theory

d. Attribution theory

e. Sociometer theory

d. Attribution theory

Our perceiving ourselves as athletic, skinny, smart, or shy constitutes our:

a. Egocentric beliefs

b. Interdependent self

c. Self-schemas

d. Enhanced self

e. True self

c. Self-schemas (the basic units of self-knowledge that make up the self-concept)

Imagine that you are grading the exams of two students, Michael and Fredo. They both get only half the questions correct. Michael gets the first half of the questions right, whereas Fredo gets the last half of the questions right. According to Asch’s work on primacy effects in impression formation, you would be likely to conclude that:

a. Michael is smarter than Fredo

b. Fredo is smarter than Michael

c. Michael and Fredo are equally unintelligent

d. Michael became overconfident while taking the exam

a. Michael is smarter than Fredo (because according to Asch, the first information has more influence on our impressions compared to later information)

Which of the following statement is true based on counterfactual thinking among Olympic medalists?

a. Bronze and silver medalists are equally likely to think “What if I had won the gold?”

b. Silver medalists are happier with their standing than bronze medalists, because silver medalists think about how they could have done worse and received the bronze

c. Silver medalists are less happy with their standing than bronze medalists, because they think if they could have done better

d. Bronze medalists are more envious of silver medalists than of gold medalists

c. Silver medalists are less happy with their standing than bronze medalists, because they think if they could have done better (bronze medalists are happy they made onto the podium whereas silver medalists are disappointed that they were so close to winning)

You hear Tiger Woods doing a radio commercial for Buick. Even though you know that Woods did not write the commercial himself, was paid to provide the voice-over for the commercial, and probably does not drive a Buick in real life, you still think that at some level, Woods must think highly of Buicks. This is an example of:

a. a stereotype

b. the false-consensus bias

c. the availability heuristic

d. the fundamental attribution error

d. the fundamental attribution error (despite acknowledging external pressures, you still make an internal attribution about his attitude towards Buicks based on his behaviour)

Vito finds a correlation of −0.35 between procrastination behaviors and academic achievement. Which of the following is an appropriate conclusion for Vito to draw?

a. Procrastination leads students to perform more poorly

b. Poor academic performance causes more procrastination

c. People who procrastinate are less likely to do well academically

d. As a student procrastinates more, her academic achievement decreases

c. People who procrastinate are less likely to do well academically (a negative correlation was found between the two variables, so when one increases, the other decreases)

Leila runs an experiment to see the impact of mood on prosocial behavior. Participants watch a video intended to put them in either a positive or neutral mood before they are asked to make a donation to a fictitious charity. What is the dependent variable in this study?

a. The participants’ mood

b. Watching a happy or sad video

c. How happy or sad participants are after donating

d. Whether or not a donation is made to charity

d. Whether or not a donation is made to charity (this will depend on the video participants have watched)

If a finding from one culture fails to generalize to a second culture, this should be viewed as a(n):

a. failure to replicate

b. opportunity to study a potential cultural difference

c. indication of possible experimenter bias

d. likely there is no true effect to be found

b. opportunity to study a potential cultural difference

People engage in self-handicapping strategies in order to avoid:

a. Failure

b. An external attribution for failure

c. Having others form a negative impression of them (ie., they are a failure)

d. An internal attribution for failure

e. An expectation of failure

d. An internal attribution for failure (when individuals self-sabotage in order to blame their failure on something external to themselves)

Paul Ekman and colleagues conducted studies on people from various cultures trying to find which emotions were universal emotions. Which emotion is considered one of the universal emotions?

a. Surprise

b. Embarrassment

c. Forgiveness

d. Shame

e. Guilt

a. Surprise (along with happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear)

After failing her driving test, Lara reminds herself that her favorite soccer team just won the championship and posts about it enthusiastically online. This makes her feel better about herself, even though the win had nothing to do with her. This behavior best illustrates:

a. Self-handicapping

b. Self-regulation

c. Basking in reflected glory (BIRG)

d. Social comparison theory

c. Basking in reflected glory (BIRG) (Lara associates herself with a successful soccer team to boost her self esteem)

Even though Dan is generally shy, he knows how to act charming and energetic during job interviews. He carefully watches others’ reactions and adjusts his behaviour depending on who he's with. Dan is exhibiting:

a. Private self-consciousness

b. Self-monitoring

c. Self-perception

d. Terror management theory

b. Self-monitoring (Dan monitors and adapts his behaviour according to the social situation and is sensitive to how others perceive him)

After a breakup, Maya finds herself comparing her current emotional state to that of a friend who just went through a messy divorce. She ends up feeling a bit better about her situation. Maya’s strategy best reflects:

a. A downward social comparison

b. BIRGing

c. Self-handicapping

d. Sociometer theory

a. A downward social comparison (Maya compares herself to someone worse off than her to protect her self-esteem)

Sam participates in a study where he’s asked to hold a pen between his teeth (forcing a smile) or between his lips (preventing a smile) while watching a cartoon. Those in the “smile” condition report enjoying the cartoon more. This finding supports:

a. Two-factor theory of emotion

b. Implicit egotism

c. Facial feedback hypothesis

d. Self-concept clarity

c. Facial feedback hypothesis (Sam’s facial expressions influence his emotions)

Mathilda is asked how confident she is while public speaking. She thinks back to the last few presentations she gave and recalls how relaxed and engaged she felt, and replies that she’s pretty confident. This thought process illustrates:

a. Self-perception theory

b. Self-schemas

c. Self-awareness theory

d. Private self-consciousness

a. Self-perception theory (Mathilda learns about herself by observing her own behaviour)

Jake volunteers to run a school fundraiser. The night before, he stays up late playing video games and ends up doing a mediocre job the next day. When asked about the poor turnout, he says, “Well, I was exhausted from being up all night.” This is most likely an example of:

a. Self-handicapping

b. Public self-consciousness

c. Self-regulation failure

d. Self-presentation

a. Self-handicapping (Jake self-sabotages in order to avoid an internal attribution for his failure)

Whenever Layla walks into a room, she becomes acutely aware of how she’s dressed and how others might be evaluating her. She frequently worries about the impression she's making on others. Layla is high in:

a. Private self-consciousness

b. Self-monitoring

c. Public self-consciousness

d. Self-concept clarity

c. Public self-consciousness (because Layla focuses on herself as a social object and how others perceive her actions in social situations)

Alex really enjoys painting during his free time. After receiving a compliment on his painting skills, Alex starts to believe that he only enjoys painting because people praise him for it. Eventually, he stops painting completely. This change in motivation is an example of the:

a. Overjustification effect

b. Self-perception theory

c. Implicit egotism

d. Affective forecasting error

a. Overjustification effect (in which extrinsic motivation undermines intrinsic motivation over time)

After watching an in-depth documentary about a devastating earthquake that left thousands dead, Pamela switches to a news anchor discussing the benefits of traditional cultural values and finds herself audibly cheering him on, even if she usually remains silent while watching the television. Later on that channel, a scholar is being interviewed critiquing her cultural practices, and Pamela yells at her screen in anger. This reaction is best explained by:

a. Sociometer theory

b. Positive illusions

c. Self-perception theory

d. Terror management theory

d. Terror management theory (Pamela counteracts the anxiety of mortality she feels after watching the documentary by clinging to her cultural values to maintain her self-esteem)

After taking an exam, Tasha wonders how well she did. However, the grades haven’t posted yet, so Tasha asks her friends and other classmates what grades they think they got. This process reflects:

a. Two-factor theory of emotion

b. Downward social comparison

c. Social comparison theory

d. Self-monitoring

c. Social comparison theory (Tasha compares her performance to others’ expected performance given that no objective measure grades] has been provided yet)

Bryce notices that when he pays close attention to himself in the mirror, he becomes more aware of the fact that he hasn't met his fitness goals and feels motivated to work out. This experience supports:

a. Self-regulation theory

b. Sociometer theory

c. Self-awareness theory

d. Terror management theory

c. Self-awareness theory (By focusing on himself, Bryce is noticing discrepancies between his current and ideal self)

When Sarah thinks about who she wishes she could be, she imagines herself as a successful author, world traveler, and someone who’s always confident in social situations. This version of herself reflects her:

a. Actual self

b. Ought self

c. Self-schema

d. Ideal self

d. Ideal self (who Sarah wants to be)

Michael often feels anxious and guilty because he believes he should be more respectful, more hardworking, and more attentive to his family’s needs. These feelings arise from a perceived gap between his actual self and his:

a. Self-schema

b. Ideal self

c. Ought self

d. Private self

c. Ought self (what Michael believes he should be)

Toby often doubts his worth, is quick to blame himself when things go wrong, and has difficulty accepting compliments. He tends to assume others view him negatively and struggles to bounce back from failure. These patterns suggest that Toby has low:

a. Self-concept

b. Self-schema

c. Self-esteem

d. Self-presentation

c. Self-esteem

Before heading into a first date, Jess spends extra time choosing the right outfit and rehearsing jokes she knows get good reactions. She wants to make a strong impression for her new date. Jess is engaging in:

a. Self-regulation

b. Self-concept maintenance

c. Self-perception

d. Self-presentation

d. Self-presentation

Despite being exhausted after work, Marcus resists the urge to watch TV and instead forces himself to go to the gym because he’s committed to his health goals. His ability to control his impulses and stay aligned with his goals reflects:

a. Self-monitoring

b. Self-regulation

c. Public self-consciousness

d. Overjustification

b. Self-regulation (Marcus regulates his behaviour to achieve his fitness goals)

According to sociometer theory, self-esteem serves what primary purpose?

a. It reflects how close we are to our ideal self

b. It acts as a gauge of our perceived social acceptance or rejection

c. It helps us regulate emotions during conflict

d. It reduces anxiety in the face of mortality

b. It acts as a gauge of our perceived social acceptance or rejection

Researchers asked drivers hospitalized in a car accident to rate their driving skills (Svenson, 1991). These drivers rated their driving skills as closer to “expert” than “poor”. This is an example of:

a. The better-than-average effect

b. A self-handicapping strategy

c. Sociometer theory

d. Self-awareness theory

a. The better-than-average effect (most people think they are above average on various personality traits and abilities)

According to self-awareness theory, when individuals are unlikely to reduce their self-discrepancies, what are they most likely to do?

a. They will put extra effort into an unrelated task

b. They will work towards reducing their self-discrepancies

c. They will undergo a social transformation

d. They will engage in forms of escapism

d. They will engage in forms of escapism (such as drug abuse, masochism, binge eating, or suicide)

Linda takes her driving test and fails. She believes that the reason she did not pass her test was due to the rainy conditions outside as well as her strict driving instructor. This thought process is an example of:

a. Self-handicapping

b. Self-esteem reduction from discrepancies

c. A self-serving cognition

d. Basking in reflected glory (BIRG)

c. A self-serving cognition (Linda blames her failure on external factors to preserve her self-esteem)

According to evolutionary principles, which of the following statements about positive self-illusions is NOT one of its main functions?

a. To signal a more positive and confident self to others

b. To make us more socially successful

c. To motivate oneself to undergo positive change

d. All of the above are evolutionary functions

c. To motivate oneself to undergo positive change

After spilling coffee on his shirt before class, Leo walks into the lecture hall feeling like everyone must be staring at the stain and judging him. In reality, no one seems to notice. Leo’s self-conscious feelings reflect:

a. The illusion of transparency

b. The spotlight effect

c. His public self-consciousness

d. Self-perception theory

b. The spotlight effect (Leo overestimates how much other people notice and pay attention to him)

During a job interview, Priya compliments the interviewer’s office decor, laughs at their jokes, and nods enthusiastically at everything they say. She hopes to appear as likeable and friendly as possible. Priya’s behaviour best reflects:

a. Self-monitoring

b. Public self-consciousness

c. Ingratiation

d. Private self-consciousness

c. Ingratiation (acting motivated by the desire to get along with others or be liked)

During a game of poker with his friends and a new, attractive person he wants to impress, Darell discusses his past successful games against famous poker players and boasts about the lectures he has taught about poker game theory. His attempt to appear confident and capable is an example of:

a. BIRGing

b. Self-promotion

c. Self-perception theory

d. Impact bias

b. Self-promotion (Darell describes his skills in an attractive way and emphasizes his successes)

Jasmine sees herself as a highly organized and detail-oriented person. When she receives feedback from a colleague who describes her that way, she feels satisfied and affirmed. However, when another colleague calls her “laid-back and spontaneous,” she becomes uncomfortable - even though it was meant as a compliment. Jasmine’s reaction is best explained by:

a. Self-enhancement theory

b. Ingratiation

c. Self-verification theory

d. Social comparison theory

c. Self-verification theory (Jasmine want others to see her as she sees herself)

Tessa is a data analyst reviewing national records and notices a curious pattern: people named Dennis are slightly more likely to be dentists, individuals named Georgia are overrepresented in the state of Georgia, and people tend to rate the letters in their own names more favourably than other letters. Social psychologists have interpreted these subtle patterns as evidence for:

a. Self-perception theory

b. Self-serving bias

c. Implicit egotism

d. Ingratiation

c. Implicit egotism (the unconscious tendency to prefer things that resemble us)

After a coworker arrives late to a meeting, Josh thinks, “She’s just irresponsible and lazy.” He doesn’t consider that traffic may have been unusually bad or that her child was sick. Josh’s reaction best illustrates:

a. Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

b. Confirmation bias

c. Counterfactual thinking

d. Covariation principle

a. Fundamental attribution error (FAE) (the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining someone else's behaviour)

One day while watching the television, you see Terry Crews in a Volkswagen advertisement. You know it’s just an advertisement, but you truly think that he might think highly of Volkswagen cars. This is an example of:

a. Ingratiation

b. Reality check

c. Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

d. Counterfactual thinking

c. Fundamental attribution error (FAE) (the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining someone else's behaviour)

While grocery shopping, Amina hears a news story about a recent shark attack. Later that week, she cancels her beach trip, even though shark attacks are statistically rare. Her decision is likely influenced by:

a. Base-rate fallacy

b. Belief in a just world

c. Availability heuristic

d. False-consensus effect

c. Availability heuristic (a cognitive bias in where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind, even if that ease of recall isn’t representative of the actual likelihood)

Thomas hears his sister talking to their mother on the phone about how she lost her job. Although he sympathizes, he can’t help but wonder what she did to have caused this. Thomas’ thought process reflects:

a. A belief in a just world

b. Attribution theory

c. Personal attribution

d. Belief perseverance

a. A belief in a just world (the tendency to believe that people receive what they deserve, with good people being rewarded and bad people being punished)

Juliette sees a man frown and cross his arms while listening to someone speak. She concludes that he is angry and not enjoying the conversation. Juliette is making a judgment based on:

a. Mind perception

b. Nonverbal behaviour

c. Impression formation

d. Situational attribution

b. Nonverbal behaviour

In a study, two groups of participants are given identical descriptions of a man named Dan, who is described as “intelligent, skillful, industrious, cautious, determined.” However, one group also sees the word “warm” added to the list, while the other sees “cold.” Even though every other trait is the same, the group that sees “warm” rates Dan as more generous and humorous. This outcome reflects the influence of:

a. Priming

b. Central traits

c. Base-rate fallacy

d. Availability heuristic

b. Central traits (traits that exert a disproportionate influence on first impressions; in this case, “warm” and “cold”)

Zahra believes her political views are moderate and reasonable, and she often assumes most other people probably agree with her, even though polls show her views are actually in the minority. Her assumption that others share her beliefs illustrates:

a. Belief perseverance

b. False-consensus effect

c. Confirmation bias

d. Impression formation

b. False-consensus effect (the tendency to overestimate how much others agree with us)

During a murder trial, the prosecution argues that the defendant is a violent and cold-hearted individual who acted out of personal rage and a lack of empathy. In contrast, the defense argues that the killing occurred during a highly stressful confrontation in which the defendant feared for their life and acted impulsively. This courtroom battle highlights the difference between:

a. Fundamental attribution error and belief perseverance

b. Self-serving bias and false-consensus effect

c. Personal attribution and situational attribution

d. Priming and counterfactual thinking

c. Personal attribution and situational attribution

After learning that their classmate cheated on an exam, Ash finds themselves thinking, “If only I had told her I saw her struggling with the material—maybe she wouldn’t have cheated.” This type of "what might have been" thinking is known as:

a. Counterfactual thinking

b. Covariation analysis

c. Attribution bias

d. Social perception

a. Counterfactual thinking (thoughts about how past events could have turned out differently)

Despite being shown strong evidence that a political candidate they supported was involved in a serious scandal, Julia continues to insist the claims are false and clings to her original belief. Her response is best explained by:

a. Confirmation bias

b. Fundamental attribution error

c. Belief perseverance

d. Mind perception

c. Belief perseverance (despite strong evidence against it, Julia persists in her belief that the political candidate was not involved in a scandal)

Credible communicators are seen as:

a. Expert and likeable

b. Expert and trustworthy

c. Likeable and baby-faced

d. Likeable and trustworthy

a. Expert and trustworthy

Karla meets someone new, and her first impression of them is quite negative. As the conversation continues, she notices certain things that don’t match her initial judgement but adheres to her first impression of them. Karla’s thoughts of this person reflect:

a. The primacy effect

b. The false-consensus effect

c. The Base-rate fallacy

d. A self-fulfilling prophecy

a. The primacy effect (where information presented first is more likely to be remembered and emphasized compared to later presentation of information)

While forming an impression of a new classmate, Elijah combines what he knows about the person (e.g., “good listener,” “dislikes public speaking”) with how strongly he values each trait. He ends up deciding the classmate is generally likeable. This process reflects:

a. Central trait theory

b. Self-fulfilling prophecy

c. Information integration theory

d. Priming

c. Information integration theory (a theory on impression formation in which people integrate an individual’s traits with how important those traits are to themselves)

Casca is a university professor. She believes she is an effective communicator. While reading anonymous course evaluations, Casca pays more attention to feedback asserting her good communications skills and dismisses the critical comments about her lectures being unclear. This behaviour best reflects:

a. Belief perseverance

b. A positive illusion

c. Self-verification theory

d. Confirmation bias

d. Confirmation bias (seeking out information that confirms your preexisting beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence)

Tyrone gets a speeding ticket. Afterward, he keeps thinking, “If only I had taken the side road like I usually do,” and feels worse because he believes the bad outcome was easily avoidable. This mental process is known as:

a. Primacy effect

b. Counterfactual thinking

c. Situational attribution

d. Belief in a just world

b. Counterfactual thinking (thoughts about how past events could have turned out differently)

After completing a word puzzle filled with words like “rude,” “aggressive,” and “hostile,” participants are more likely to interpret someone’s neutral behaviour as confrontational. This shift in perception is best explained by:

a. Confirmation bias

b. Central trait activation

c. Priming

d. Belief perseverance

c. Priming (how recent exposure to stimuli can influence our interpretation of subsequent stimuli)

A teacher is told that one of her new students is exceptionally gifted. Though the student performs about average at first, the teacher gives extra encouragement and more opportunities. By the end of the year, the student is outperforming the rest of the class. This is an example of:

a. Egocentric beliefs

b. Self-fulfilling prophecy

c. Central trait theory

d. Social perception bias

b. Self-fulfilling prophecy (in which expectations influence behaviour in a way that causes the expectation to become true)

While watching the news, Angela sees a story about a carjacking and decides that carjackings must be increasing in her city. She ignores official statistics that show crime has actually gone down. Angela is likely committing the:

a. Base-rate fallacy

b. False-consensus effect

c. Availability heuristic

d. Information integration error

a. Base-rate fallacy (the tendency for people to ignore statistical information in favour of anecdotal evidence)

While watching a political debate, Luis notices that one candidate takes a strong and unpopular stance on a controversial issue, even though it could hurt their chances with voters. Luis concludes that the candidate must truly believe in what they’re saying, rather than just trying to win votes. Luis is making a judgment based on:

a. Self-perception theory

b. Correspondent inference theory

c. The covariation principle

d. The false-consensus effect

b. Correspondent inference theory (people are more likely to infer a person’s traits or beliefs from behaviour when that behaviour appears to be freely chosen, socially undesirable, and distinctive)

When Charlotte meets her new coworker, she quickly forms an impression based on his tone of voice, facial expressions, and body language. As she continues interacting with him, she automatically begins categorizing him as shy and serious. This process reflects:

a. Self-fulfilling prophecy

b. Mind perception

c. Impression formation

d. Social comparison

c. Impression formation (integrating information to form an overall impression of someone)

An urban explorer goes into the abandoned sewers of a nearby city. When he hears an alarm go off in the midst of his exploration, he runs back to safety. Later, he thinks about how badly things could have turned out if he had stayed, and feels relieved. This is an example of:

a. A downwards counterfactual

b. The base-rate fallacy

c. An availability heuristic

d. A self-serving cognition

e. A downwards social comparison

a. A downward counterfactual (imagining how outcomes could have been worse, and feeling relieved and/or satisfied)

Roese and Summerville (2005) conducted research on the major spheres of regret in people’s lives. They found that:

a. People primarily regretted their career choices over other spheres of life, specifically acts of omission

b. People primarily regretted choices made in their work, romantic, and educational spheres of life, specifically acts of commission

c. People primarily regretted choices made in their romantic lives over other spheres of life, specifically acts of omission

d. People primarily regretted choices made in their work, romantic, and educational spheres of life, specifically acts of omission and commission

d. People primarily regretted choices made in their work, romantic, and educational spheres of life, specifically acts of omission and commission

Which of the following is most likely to lead to victim-blaming following a crime?

a. Self-perception theory

b. Base-rate fallacy

c. Belief in a just world

d. Impression formation

e. False consensus effect

c. Belief in a just world (believing that people get what they deserve, in which good people are rewarded and bad people are punished)

Jacob is at a party when he sees a girl smile at hime from across the room. He takes this as a hint of sexual interest, and goes to talk to her. However, during their conversation, she seems distracted and uninterested. Jacob’s thought process in this scenario reflects:

a. Wishful seeing

b. Wishful thinking

c. Self-perception theory

d. Availability heuristics

a. Wishful seeing (seeing what we want to see)

During a class introduction activity, each student says their name in a circle. Later, most classmates remember the first few and the last few names, but struggle to recall those said in the middle. This illustrates the:

a. Priming effect

b. Serial positioning effect

c. Recency effect

d. Primacy effect

b. Serial positioning effect (memory phenomenon in which the first and last pieces of information in a sequence are better remembered than those in between)

While reviewing resumes, a hiring manager reads through 30 applications. When asked which ones stood out, she most easily remembers the last few she looked at and rates them more favorably than those from earlier in the pile. This is an example of:

a. Primacy effect

b. Recency effect

c. Impression formation

d. Confirmation bias

b. Recency effect (where more recent information is better remembered)

In a classic study by Forgas & Bower (1987), participants were given positive or negative feedback about themselves to induce a happy or sad mood. Afterward, they were asked to evaluate a series of people. Results showed that those in a happier mood:

a. Rated others more negatively because they felt more confident in their own judgments

b. Paid more attention to negative information about others

c. Formed more positive impressions and focused on more positive traits

d. Became less responsive to social cues due to increased self-focus

c. Formed more positive impressions and focused on more positive traits

Which of the following is NOT one of the big five personality traits?

a. Neuroticism

b. Openness to experience

c. Confidence

d. Extraversion

c. Confidence

During a group project, Talia meets a new teammate who seems friendly, responsible, and well-prepared. However, during one meeting, the teammate makes a sarcastic comment that Talia finds rude. Even though the teammate behaves positively the rest of the time, Talia can’t shake the bad impression. This illustrates:

a. Confirmation bias

b. Negativity bias

c. Central trait effect

d. Recency effect

b. Negativity bias (the tendency for negative information to weigh more heavily than positive or neutral information for impression formation)

Despite believing in equality, Maya tends to feel uncomfortable around people from different racial backgrounds and unknowingly avoids making eye contact with them. Her behavior is subtle but measurable, and may reflect:

a. Modern racism

b. Implicit racism

c. Aversive racism

d. System justification theory

c. Aversive racism (ambivalence between individuals’ sincerely fair-minded attitudes and beliefs on the one hand and their largely unconscious and unrecognized prejudicial feelings and beliefs on the other)

During a mock trial experiment, jurors rate a defendant more harshly after being subtly exposed to words associated with aggression and crime. They are unaware of having seen these words. This method involves:

a. Implicit racism

b. Subliminal presentation

c. Contact hypothesis

d. Stereotype content model

b. Subliminal presentation (exposing individuals to stimuli below the threshold of conscious awareness, which unconsciously influences their perception and behaviours)

Jared feels upset when he sees others in his community getting better jobs and newer cars while his own circumstances stay the same, even though his quality of life hasn’t declined. This feeling that others are getting ahead while he is not reflects:

a. Discrimination

b. Relative deprivation

c. Ingroup bias

d. Realistic conflict theory

b. Relative deprivation (perception that you’re worse off compared to others, even if your absolute situation hasn’t changed)

In an effort to reduce tensions and increase cooperation among a diverse group of students, a middle school teacher restructures group work so that each student becomes responsible for mastering one part of a project and teaching it to their groupmates. Over time, the students show more empathy, less conflict, and stronger academic performance. This teaching strategy reflects principles of the:

a. Contact hypothesis

b. Stereotype threat framework

c. Jigsaw classroom

d. Superordinate goals approach

c. Jigsaw classroom (cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts)

Before taking a math exam, Ana is reminded that she’s one of the few women in her engineering program. Even though she’s well-prepared, she starts to worry that if she performs poorly, it will confirm negative stereotypes about women in STEM. This pressure negatively affects her performance. This scenario best illustrates:

a. Negative stereotypes about women

b. Ambivalent sexism

c. A stereotype threat

d. Discrimination

c. A stereotype threat (a phenomenon where individuals, feeling at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their group, experience anxiety and performance impairment)

After meeting a few people from another country who were unfriendly, Sofia starts to assume that most people from that country are cold and distant, despite having little actual experience with the group. This belief reflects the:

a. Stereotype content model

b. Outgroup homogeneity effect

c. Social categorization process

d. Social dominance orientation

b. Outgroup homogeneity effect (the tendency to perceive outgroup members as more similar to each other than they really are)

A college student feels proud when her university wins a national championship and starts wearing more school merchandise around campus. She identifies strongly with her school’s achievements, even though she didn’t contribute directly. This reflects:

a. Ingroup favoritism

b. Stereotype content model

c. Relative upbringing

d. Social identity theory

d. Social identity theory (when people derive part of their self-worth from the groups they belong to)