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CSUF PSYC 110 2023 Order of flashcards: Errors in Thinking, Scientific Method, Judgment, and Forming an Argument
What are the errors of perspective?
Poverty of aspect
Unwarranted assumptions
The either/ or outlook
Information associated with conformity
Absolutism
Relativism
Bias against change
What is poverty of aspect?
It refers to the limitation that comes from taking a narrow view rather than a broad view on problems and issues
What are the 2 causes of poverty of aspect?
The different academic disciplines that have been introduced over the course of history
The plethora of knowledge that has taken place in every discipline
What is unwarranted assumptions?
When assumptions become unwarranted when one starts to take too much for granted (important to read between the lines for expressed ideas)
Ex: I have smoked for 10 years and haven’t gotten sick so I will never get sick because of smoking
What is the either/ or outlook?
The expectation that the only reasonable view of any issue is either total affirmation or total rejection
What is Mindless Conformity?
The following of others’ examples because we are too lazy or are fearful to think for ourselves
⭐ ️Conformity
Behaving in accordance with group norms
⭐ N️ormative Social Influence
Wanting to be liked or approved by others
⭐ Informational Social Influence and an example of it
Wanting to be right; Asch’s Experiment (1951)
Can conform to:
Religion
Peers
Authority
What is absolutism?
The belief that there must be rules but no expectations (susceptible to oversimplification and hasty conclusions)
What is relativism?
The belief that “truth is created and discovered”
⭐Relativist can not ____:
Challenge the correctness of other people’s views without contradicting themselves
What is bias FOR change?
More common than it used to be; live in an age of change; some changes are for the better but not all
What is bias AGAINST change?
Is still more prevalent than bias FOR change; familiarity; resist ideas that challenge our sense of security
What are the Errors of Procedure?
Biased Consideration of Evidence
Double Standard
Hasty Conclusion
Overgeneralization + Stereotyping
Oversimplification
Post Hoc Fallacy
What is biased consideration of evidence?
When you only seek evidence that confirms your bias
What is double standard?
Using one standard of judgement for our ideas (commonly seen in issues of free speech)
What is hasty conclusion?
A premature judgement that one makes without enough evidence
What is overgeneralization?
To ascribe to all the members of a group that fits only SOME members
Ex: All New Yorkers are rude
What is stereotyping?
An overgeneralization that is especially resistant to change
Ex: Religious + ethnic
What is oversimplification?
Scales down complex ideas to a level that can be understood by people that have less amount of knowledge regarding the subject that is being simplified.
What is post hoc fallacy?
The reasoning that when one thing occurs after another, it must be the result of the other
Is the basis for most superstitions (Ex: step on a crack, you break your mom’s back)
What are the Errors of Expression?
Contradiction
Arguing in a Circle
False Analogy
Irrational Appeal
What is contradiction?
That no statement can be both true and false at the same time in the same way
Ex: suspect admitting crime and then denying any guilt
What is arguing in a circle?
Providing a statement by repeating it in a different form
Ex: Divorce is on the rise today because more marriages are breaking up
What is false analogy?
When it claims similarities that DO NOT withstand scrutiny
Ex: Procrastination on hw is bad, its like waiting until the last minute to get treatment when you are sick
What is irrational appeal?
It encourages people to accept ideas without question; pressure to conform
What are the different types of irrational appeal?
Emotional: use of feelings to induce guilt, fear, anger, pity, love without demonstrating their appropriateness
Traditional: doing something because its always been done
Common Belief: believe this because most people believe it
Tolerance: don’t judge or criticize others; tolerance is good in every situation
What are the Errors of Reaction?
Automatice Rejection
Changing the Subject
Shifting the burden of proof
Straw Man
Attacking the Critic
What is automatic rejection?
Reject the criticism without giving it a fair hearing
The need to put emotional distance between ideas and ego
What is changing the subject?
Abruptly turning the discussion in a different direction
What is shifting the burden of proof?
Demanding others to disprove our assertions
What is a straw man?
To put false words in someone’s mouth and then expose their falsity, even though the other person never said them (to put words in one’s mouth)
What is attacking the critic?
Attempting to discredit an idea or argument by disparaging or belittling the person who expressed it
Problem because ideas and people are not synonymous
But before scientific investigation can take place, the world is understood to be publicly understandable:
The world has a specific structure
We can know this structure
This knowledge is available to everyone
Science must be able to withstand public scrutiny
⭐ All of the above question on the test!⭐
Maintaining a hypothesis in the face of contradicting evidence____:
Can be unreasonable
⭐T/F question on the test!⭐
True or false:
A hypothesis does NOT have to be correct
True
What is criteria of adequacy?
How well a hypothesis systemizes and unifies our knowledge understanding
Hypothesis needs to be:
Testable
Fruitful
Of broad scope
Simple
Conservative
Testability
A hypothesis is only scientific if it is testable; can not determine if its true or false it it can’t be tested
Fruitfulness
The most fruitful hypothesis is that it makes the most successful new predictions; important for the test; why waste time on something that has already been discovered
Scope
The best hypothesis is the one that has the greatest scope; explains + predicts the most diverse phenomena
Simplicity
The best hypothesis is the simplest one; the simpler it is, the fewer ways for it to go wrong; should assume no more than is required to explain the phenomenon in question
Conservatism
The best hypothesis is the one that is most conservative because it is the one that fits best with established beliefs
What is parapsychology?
The study of extrasensory perception and psychokinesis
ESP
Perception that is not mediated by an organisms’s recognized sensory organs
What are the 3 main types of ESP?
Telepathy, Precognition, and Clairvoyance
Telepathy
Perception of another’s thoughts without the use of the senses
Precognition
Perception of future events without the use of the senses
Ex: Train wreck vision
Clairvoyance
Perception of distant objects/ situations without the use of the senses (knowledge at a distance)
Judgement
Conclusions arrived at through examination of evidence and careful reasoning (can be influenced by bias and ideals)
To prevent errors in judgement you should:
Know yourself + your biases
Be observant
Clarify issues + conduct inquiry
Carefully evaluate evidence we have obtained
What are the benefits of asking questions?
Prevents hasty conclusions
Allows for the evaluation of each part of the argument individually (rather than settling for an overall evaluation)
Helps us to identify both the strengths and weakness of the argument
Provides a structure around which to arrange your thoughts
What is decision making?
The ability to evaluate all the alternatives and then make an informed choice
What is loss aversion and what is an example of it?
The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to an attempt to acquire gains
Ex: Its better to not lose the $5 than randomly find a $10 bill on the ground
What are two associated concepts with loss aversion?
Endowment effect and sunk cost fallacy
Endowment Effect
People ascribe greater value to things they already own compared to objects owed by someone else
Ex: The “mug” study (1990)
Sunk Cost Fallacy
People are reluctant to give up on a venture because of past investment
Ex: Changing your major; long-term relationship
What are problems?
Situations involving a question that calls for a correct answer
Ex: Math or an engineering mistake
Problems need to be solved
⭐️True/ False question on the test!⭐️
What are dilemmas?
Situations that require choices between competing or conflicting values that cannot be simultaneously or fully resolved
Ex: Telling the truth or hurting someone’s feelings; choosing between family and career
Dilemmas need to be negotiated or navigated, not solved
What are the important distinctions in judgement?
Between the person + the idea
Ex: Makes on women’s issues
Between what is said and how it is said
Ex: Someone who is saying b.s
Between the individual and the group or class
Ex: Stereotypes
Between matters of preference and matters of judgement
Between familiarity and correctness
What are the different ways to express judgement effectively?
Strive for a balanced view
Deal with probability
Judgement “suggests” rather than judgement “proves
Make your subject appropriately specific
Make your predicate exact
Include all appropriate qualifications
Avoid exaggeration
When uncertain, go for a modest interpretation
What are premises?
Reasons intended to support another claim and can come before or after the conclusion (Since, because, given that, due to the fact)
What are conclusions?
Claims that the premises are intended to support and must have at least one valid argument (Therefore, so, consequently, as a result)
Valid arguments can have:
False premises + a false conclusion
False premises + a true conclusion
True premises + a true conclusion
What are deductive arguments?
Otherwise known as top-down logic; is intended to provide conclusive support for their conclusions; validity
What are inductive arguments?
Otherwise known as bottom-up logic; provides the best inductively strong argument that can show that the conclusion is very likely to be true; strength
What are the different valid deductive arguments?
Affirming the antecedent
Denying the consequent
Hypothetical syllogism
Disjunction syllogism
What is affirming the antecedent?
If P then Q. P. Therefore, q
Ex: IF you play with fire, you will get burned. You played with fire. Therefore, you got burned.
What is denying the consequent?
If P then Q. Not Q. Therefore, not P.
Ex: IF it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky. There are no clouds in the sky. Therefore, it is not raining.
What is a hypothetical syllogism?
A valid hypothetical form used to think critically about a series of events
If p then q, If q then r, Therefore, if p then r.
Ex: IF I do not wake up, then I cannot go to work. If I cannot go to work, then I will not get paid. Therefore, if I do not wake up, then I will not get paid
What are two invalid deductive arguments?
Denying the antecedent and affirming the consequent
What is a strong inductive argument?
An inductively strong argument with true premises is “cognet”
Cognet argument: one which provides good reasons for accepting the conclusion
What is enumerative induction?
Reasoning used to arrive at a generalization about a group of things after observing only some members of that group
Formula: % of the observed members of group A have property P. Therefore % of all the members of group A have property P
What is analogical induction?
When we claim that two things that are similar in some respects are similar in some further respect, we make an analogical induction
Formula: Object A has properties F, G, H as well as the property Z. Object B has properties F, G, H. Therefore, Object B probably has property Z.
Ex: Earth has air, water, and life. Mars is like the Earth in that it has air and water. Therefore, its probable that Mars has life.
What is hypothetical induction?
Interference to the best explanation
Phenomena P. Hypothesis B explains P. No other hypothesis explains P as well as B. Therefore, its probable that B is true.
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