Psych Exam 3

CSUF PSYC 110 2023 Order of flashcards: Errors in Thinking, Scientific Method, Judgment, and Forming an Argument

What are the errors of perspective?

• Poverty of aspect

• Unwarranted assumptions

• The either/ or outlook

• Information associated with conformity

• Absolutism

• Relativism

• Bias against change

What is poverty of aspect?

It refers to the limitation that comes from taking a narrow view rather than a broad view on problems and issues

What are the 2 causes of poverty of aspect?

• The different academic disciplines that have been introduced over the course of history

• The plethora of knowledge that has taken place in every discipline

What is unwarranted assumptions?

When assumptions become unwarranted when one starts to take too much for granted (important to read between the lines for expressed ideas)

• Ex: I have smoked for 10 years and haven’t gotten sick so I will never get sick because of smoking

What is the either/ or outlook?

The expectation that the only reasonable view of any issue is either total affirmation or total rejection

What is Mindless Conformity?

The following of others’ examples because we are too lazy or are fearful to think for ourselves

⭐ ️Conformity

Behaving in accordance with group norms

⭐ N️ormative Social Influence

Wanting to be liked or approved by others

⭐ Informational Social Influence and an example of it

Wanting to be right; Asch’s Experiment (1951)

• Can conform to:

• Religion

• Peers

• Authority

What is absolutism?

The belief that there must be rules but no expectations (susceptible to oversimplification and hasty conclusions)

What is relativism?

The belief that “truth is created and discovered”

⭐Relativist can not ____:

Challenge the correctness of other people’s views without contradicting themselves

What is bias FOR change?

More common than it used to be; live in an age of change; some changes are for the better but not all

What is bias AGAINST change?

Is still more prevalent than bias FOR change; familiarity; resist ideas that challenge our sense of security

What are the Errors of Procedure?

• Biased Consideration of Evidence

• Double Standard

• Hasty Conclusion

• Overgeneralization + Stereotyping

• Oversimplification

• Post Hoc Fallacy

What is biased consideration of evidence?

When you only seek evidence that confirms your bias

What is double standard?

Using one standard of judgement for our ideas (commonly seen in issues of free speech)

What is hasty conclusion?

A premature judgement that one makes without enough evidence

What is overgeneralization?

To ascribe to all the members of a group that fits only SOME members

• Ex: All New Yorkers are rude

What is stereotyping?

An overgeneralization that is especially resistant to change

• Ex: Religious + ethnic

What is oversimplification?

Scales down complex ideas to a level that can be understood by people that have less amount of knowledge regarding the subject that is being simplified.

What is post hoc fallacy?

The reasoning that when one thing occurs after another, it must be the result of the other

• Is the basis for most superstitions (Ex: step on a crack, you break your mom’s back)

What are the Errors of Expression?

• Contradiction

• Arguing in a Circle

• False Analogy

• Irrational Appeal

What is contradiction?

That no statement can be both true and false at the same time in the same way

• Ex: suspect admitting crime and then denying any guilt

What is arguing in a circle?

Providing a statement by repeating it in a different form

• Ex: Divorce is on the rise today because more marriages are breaking up

What is false analogy?

When it claims similarities that DO NOT withstand scrutiny

• Ex: Procrastination on hw is bad, its like waiting until the last minute to get treatment when you are sick

What is irrational appeal?

It encourages people to accept ideas without question; pressure to conform

What are the different types of irrational appeal?

• Emotional: use of feelings to induce guilt, fear, anger, pity, love without demonstrating their appropriateness

• Traditional: doing something because its always been done

• Common Belief: believe this because most people believe it

• Tolerance: don’t judge or criticize others; tolerance is good in every situation

What are the Errors of Reaction?

• Automatice Rejection

• Changing the Subject

• Shifting the burden of proof

• Straw Man

• Attacking the Critic

What is automatic rejection?

• Reject the criticism without giving it a fair hearing

• The need to put emotional distance between ideas and ego

What is changing the subject?

Abruptly turning the discussion in a different direction

What is shifting the burden of proof?

Demanding others to disprove our assertions

What is a straw man?

To put false words in someone’s mouth and then expose their falsity, even though the other person never said them (to put words in one’s mouth)

What is attacking the critic?

Attempting to discredit an idea or argument by disparaging or belittling the person who expressed it

• Problem because ideas and people are not synonymous

But before scientific investigation can take place, the world is understood to be publicly understandable:

• The world has a specific structure

• We can know this structure

• This knowledge is available to everyone

• Science must be able to withstand public scrutiny

⭐ All of the above question on the test!⭐

Maintaining a hypothesis in the face of contradicting evidence____:

Can be unreasonable

⭐T/F question on the test!⭐

True or false:

A hypothesis does NOT have to be correct

True

What is criteria of adequacy?

How well a hypothesis systemizes and unifies our knowledge understanding

Hypothesis needs to be:

• Testable

• Fruitful

• Of broad scope

• Simple

• Conservative

Testability

A hypothesis is only scientific if it is testable; can not determine if its true or false it it can’t be tested

Fruitfulness

The most fruitful hypothesis is that it makes the most successful new predictions; important for the test; why waste time on something that has already been discovered

Scope

The best hypothesis is the one that has the greatest scope; explains + predicts the most diverse phenomena

Simplicity

The best hypothesis is the simplest one; the simpler it is, the fewer ways for it to go wrong; should assume no more than is required to explain the phenomenon in question

Conservatism

The best hypothesis is the one that is most conservative because it is the one that fits best with established beliefs

What is parapsychology?

The study of extrasensory perception and psychokinesis

ESP

Perception that is not mediated by an organisms’s recognized sensory organs

What are the 3 main types of ESP?

Telepathy, Precognition, and Clairvoyance

Telepathy

Perception of another’s thoughts without the use of the senses

Precognition

Perception of future events without the use of the senses

• Ex: Train wreck vision

Clairvoyance

Perception of distant objects/ situations without the use of the senses (knowledge at a distance)

Judgement

Conclusions arrived at through examination of evidence and careful reasoning (can be influenced by bias and ideals)

To prevent errors in judgement you should:

• Know yourself + your biases

• Be observant

• Clarify issues + conduct inquiry

• Carefully evaluate evidence we have obtained

What are the benefits of asking questions?

• Prevents hasty conclusions

• Allows for the evaluation of each part of the argument individually (rather than settling for an overall evaluation)

• Helps us to identify both the strengths and weakness of the argument

• Provides a structure around which to arrange your thoughts

What is decision making?

The ability to evaluate all the alternatives and then make an informed choice

What is loss aversion and what is an example of it?

The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to an attempt to acquire gains

• Ex: Its better to not lose the $5 than randomly find a $10 bill on the ground

What are two associated concepts with loss aversion?

Endowment effect and sunk cost fallacy

Endowment Effect

People ascribe greater value to things they already own compared to objects owed by someone else

• Ex: The “mug” study (1990)

Sunk Cost Fallacy

People are reluctant to give up on a venture because of past investment

• Ex: Changing your major; long-term relationship

What are problems?

Situations involving a question that calls for a correct answer

• Ex: Math or an engineering mistake

• Problems need to be solved

⭐️True/ False question on the test!⭐️

What are dilemmas?

Situations that require choices between competing or conflicting values that cannot be simultaneously or fully resolved

• Ex: Telling the truth or hurting someone’s feelings; choosing between family and career

• Dilemmas need to be negotiated or navigated, not solved

What are the important distinctions in judgement?

1. Between the person + the idea

   • Ex: Makes on women’s issues

2. Between what is said and how it is said

   • Ex: Someone who is saying b.s

3. Between the individual and the group or class

   • Ex: Stereotypes

4. Between matters of preference and matters of judgement

5. Between familiarity and correctness

What are the different ways to express judgement effectively?

• Strive for a balanced view

• Deal with probability

  • Judgement “suggests” rather than judgement “proves

• Make your subject appropriately specific

• Make your predicate exact

• Include all appropriate qualifications

• Avoid exaggeration

  • When uncertain, go for a modest interpretation

What are premises?

Reasons intended to support another claim and can come before or after the conclusion (Since, because, given that, due to the fact)

What are conclusions?

Claims that the premises are intended to support and must have at least one valid argument (Therefore, so, consequently, as a result)

Valid arguments can have:

• False premises + a false conclusion

• False premises + a true conclusion

• True premises + a true conclusion

What are deductive arguments?

Otherwise known as top-down logic; is intended to provide conclusive support for their conclusions; validity

What are inductive arguments?

Otherwise known as bottom-up logic; provides the best inductively strong argument that can show that the conclusion is very likely to be true; strength

What are the different valid deductive arguments?

• Affirming the antecedent

• Denying the consequent

• Hypothetical syllogism

• Disjunction syllogism

What is affirming the antecedent?

If P then Q. P. Therefore, q

Ex: IF you play with fire, you will get burned. You played with fire. Therefore, you got burned.

What is denying the consequent?

If P then Q. Not Q. Therefore, not P.

Ex: IF it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky. There are no clouds in the sky. Therefore, it is not raining.

What is a hypothetical syllogism?

A valid hypothetical form used to think critically about a series of events

If p then q, If q then r, Therefore, if p then r.

Ex: IF I do not wake up, then I cannot go to work. If I cannot go to work, then I will not get paid. Therefore, if I do not wake up, then I will not get paid

What are two invalid deductive arguments?

Denying the antecedent and affirming the consequent

What is a strong inductive argument?

An inductively strong argument with true premises is “cognet”

• Cognet argument: one which provides good reasons for accepting the conclusion

What is enumerative induction?

Reasoning used to arrive at a generalization about a group of things after observing only some members of that group

• Formula: % of the observed members of group A have property P. Therefore % of all the members of group A have property P

What is analogical induction?

When we claim that two things that are similar in some respects are similar in some further respect, we make an analogical induction

• Formula: Object A has properties F, G, H as well as the property Z. Object B has properties F, G, H. Therefore, Object B probably has property Z.

• Ex: Earth has air, water, and life. Mars is like the Earth in that it has air and water. Therefore, its probable that Mars has life.

What is hypothetical induction?

Interference to the best explanation

• Phenomena P. Hypothesis B explains P. No other hypothesis explains P as well as B. Therefore, its probable that B is true.