Family, P2

Personal life sociologists and example

focus on meanings family members give to their relationships (bottom up)

may not be conventionally family (blood, marriage, kin) but fictive kin/ chosen families, pets- all kinds of relationships are significant

ignores what is special about family blood relationships

Becky Tipper- children see pets as part of the family too

Nordqvist and Smart- emphasise this in donor- conceived children. importance of social relationships over genetic ones e.g. lesbian couples concerned sperm donor would be seen as second parent

explaining gender division of labour

1. cultural or ideological explanation: patriarchal norms shape gender roles. women do more domestic labour as this is what society expects and has socialised them to do. therefore equality will only be achieved when attitudes adjust.

   • Geshurny- couples are adapting to women working full time creating a new norm of men doing more domestic work.

   • Kan- younger men do do more domestic work.

2. material or economic explanation: women earn less than men so economically rational for men to spend more time earning money. therefore, if women earned as much as men then they would share domestic work more.

   • Arber and Ginn: better paid women could buy in services like childcare rather than doing work themselves

   • Ramos: where women is full time breadwinner, they do equal amounts of domestic labour.

→ lesbian couples have more equal division of labour

• have lack of gender scripts that set out different masculine and feminine roles meaning they are more open to negotiation making it more equal.

nuclear, extended, lone parent, blended, same sex marriage, beanpole, empty nest, dinks

• Nuclear- two married parents living with their own children

• Extended- wider family members living in the home with you

• Lone-parent family- one parent who raises children on their own

• Blended- two families that merge together due to death or divorce

• Same sex marriage- families led by a couple who are of the same sex

• Beanpole- long living families with few children in each generation

• Empty nest- parents who live together in the family home after their children have left

• Dinks- double income no kids (due to choice or infertility)

Functionalism view on the family

see the family as a vital institution which performs functions that benefit us all. Stables families create social order, economic stability, reproduce the population and socialise children into the norms and values of wider society

• family is the heart in the organic analogy

• nuclear family is now the most common- was the extended

ignore conflict and exploitation e.g. exploitation of women. ignore family diversity assuming nuclear family is the norm.

Talcott Parson’s view of the family

• family acts like a warm bath by relaxing and refreshing its members- especially man after stressful day at work

• it prevents adults from being dysfunctional and encourages people to conform to social norms

→ geographical mobility- easy for 2 generational compact nuclear family to move to where jobs are

→ social mobility- industrial society values achieved status meaning adult sons can achieve higher status than family, and can then create their own nuclear unit to remove status conflict.

• the nuclear family is the most efficient because it has complimentary roles.

  • wife, expressive role- provides warmth and emotional support to children and husband.

  • husband, instrumental role- being breadwinner (leads to stress)

Feminists argue that these are not natural/ biological because it is not found in all societies and only benefits men.

Stabilisation Of Adult Personalities- the sexualised division of labour helps to stabilise adult personalities so they can cope with stresses of everyday life. Men find work stressful, but his wife at home destresses him to reduce conflict meaning they can return to work to perform role efficiently.

GP Murdock’s view of the family

• Explained 4 vital functions that the family performed that supported the wider society.

  Reproduction- provides stability for reproduction and rearing of children.

  Economic support- provides food and shelter

  Emotional support- family cares for its members and shows sexuality in a socially approved context. stable satisfaction of sex drive with same marital partner.

  Socialisation (primary)- teaches basic life skills and culture to enable them to integrate into society,

Marxism and the family

Marxists look at how the family contributes to the maintenance of society’s structures. They do not see the family as necessary but as a tool reinforced by the rich and powerful to maintaine capitalism.

Friedrich Engel’s view of the family

• Nuclear family was ideal to Functionalists because it worked perefctly for inheritance, passing wealth and property to heirs.

• Women’s position in the family was like that of a prostitute- financial deal is struck where she provides sex and hers in return for economic security from her husband.

Eli Zaretsky’s view of the family

• states that the family is an escape route from oppression and exploitation that men face at work.

  • after the industrial revolution, work was brought out of the home and to factories where men were alienated and exploited.

  • private sphere (family) - men were valued, had control and could enjoy themselves, ⭐ utopian retreat

  • Zaretsky viewed the utopian retreat negatively because it meant workers could relieve their frustrations wuth capitalism meaning they did not demand change as the family pacified them. This meant that social change was not fought to bring about communism.

commune

small society where adults and children live together. This abolishes priavte property and social classes and instead focuses on collective living and shared responsibility. e.g. Kibbutzism, Israel

Marxist feminism view of the family

All institutions contribute to the maintenance of exploitation

1. passing on wealth: Engels- marriage means men can pass land to their sons but women became private property of her father who controls her sexuality so he is the father of her children. women become economically dependent on husband so cannot leave.

2. ideological functions- zaretsky: ‘cult of private life’ gaining fulfillment from family life distracts attention from exploitation.

3. unit of consumption: family is important market for consumer good and enable capitalists to make profits.

• Women’s unpaid domestic work directly benefits big companies, business owners and the Bourgeoisie.

Diana Feeley’s view of the family, marxist feminist

Diana Feeley:

• Family is a patriarchal hierachy which teaches children to be passive. This means children develop false class consciousness where children learn there is a power structure in society relating to gender roles.

• Family lays groundwork for submission to “the boss” which creates obedient workforce. Children understand men are the breadwinners who earn the most money.

• Expectation that “good parents” must work to provide material comforts and good life chances for their children meaning people are kept in unsatisfying jobs- alienation 👽

• Harder for workers to go on strike if they have a family to support so they do not speak out against explotation.

Margaret Benston’s view of the family, marxist feminist

• Women have important role in capitalist economy due to their unpaid domestic work. They are sociliased to being compliant and willing to do what they are told which becomes the norm as women to not challenge male domination.

• Women are part of the reserve army of labour- they can be brought into temporary and low paying jobs in time of need and then easily fired when they are no longer necessary e.g. WW1

Liberal Feminism view of the family

march or progress- gender inequality is being overcome through legal reforms and policy changes, challenging stereotypes and changing people’s attitudes.

Canalisation: way parents channel children’s interests into toys and activities that are seen as “normal” for their sex based on traditional gender roles. e.g. dress codes, playing

• Liberal feminists want equal opportunities between men and women but feel society creates double standards through gender roles.

The Public Sphere- want gender equality though legal change e.g. equal pay, better working conditions

• Early liberal feminists fought for the vote, while modern liberal feminists want social, economic, political and sexual equality.

The Private sphere- family should be seen as a social institution so roles should be equal. they support marriage as long as it is an equal partnership

• support abortion and reproductive rights

• ending domestic violence and sexual harassment will help women achieve equality with men.

Jennifer Somerville’s view of the family, liberal feminist

best way to improve family life for women is through legal change.

• need to develop policies to help working parents

  • working hours and culture are incompatible with family life

  • many jobs rely on male breadwinner to have non-working wife who can look after their children

• women now face less social pressure to get married and have children but need to have more flexibility in paid employment.

‼ March of progress: acknowledge existing inequalities but consider gap to be closing as law change gets more rights and opportunities for women. They argue marxist and radical feminists fail to see these improvements.

- 1970, equal pay act - 1975, sex discrimination act - 2010, equality act

marxist feminist view on the family

capitalism is the main cause of women’s oppression

1. reproduces labour force- women socialise next generation of workers and service current one for free

2. absorb men;s anger- otherwise would be directed at capitalism. wives destress their frustration from being exploited at work

3. reserve army of cheap labour- when not needed, women workers return to their domestic role

→ family should be abolished at the same time as capitalism

women’s oppression did not start with capitalism so there is no reason to believe it would end with it.

Radical Feminism view of the family

Family is a patriarchal institution that benefits men at the expense of women so men exercise “male domination”. e.g. domestic violence, women’s unpaid domestic labour . Therefore, radical feminists believe women are better off rejecting family life and relationships with men altogether.

→ patriarchal system should be overturned and family abolished.

ignore importance of class and ethnic inequality e.g. white middle class women may have more power than black working class men.

Germaine Greer, radical feminist

“the illusion of family life is built on the silence of suffering women”

• Many relationships between men and women are highly patriachal and exploitative.

• There is a high social pressure for women to be wives as their primary and most important role.

• Inequality is mirrored in marriage as it reinforces patriarchal relations from the onset. After the honeymoon, marriage settles into a pattern where wives focus on keeping their husbands happy.

• Married men report higher levels of satisfaction that non- married men (this is the opposite for women).

  • ¾ of divorce is initiated by women.

• Mothers are undervalued- mothers and children are often not welcomed in society e.g. social stigma against breast feeding.

• Daughters ore likely to experience sexual abuse from fathers and male relatives- “extension of male heterosexuality”.

  (abuse more common than we think)

  SOLUTION:

  Greer argues women are better off in matrilocal households here all adults are female. These can incorporate women who live alone <3

  Political lesbianism: women need to get rid of men from heads and beds.

  • reject heterosexuality and men

  • penetrative sex between men and women is a symbol of oppression and function/ effect also controls women

Postmodernists view of the family

Postmodernists believe traditional norms and values are being challenged due to increased globalisation and development of new technology.

• Social groups had become fragmented into a mass of individuals making their own choices on how to live their life.

• Individuals “mix and match” relationships as they suit- changes over time.

• focus on meanings family members give to their relationships

• Rise of alternatives to nuclear family- cohabitation, diversity in sexual orientations.

Judith Stacey’s view of the family, postmodernist

studied lives of Californian women after they had been divorced and how their relationships developed with others and made new support networks.

- friends - ex partners - other family

The New Right’s view of the family

1. biologically based division of labour- male breadwinner and female homeworker. this nuclear family is best way to socialise children.

gender roles are not natural but socially constructed through socialisation and vary between cultures

2. families should be self reliant- dependent on welfare state leads to dependency culture which undermines traditional gender roles, produces family breakdowns and lone parent families. this leads to a lack of male role models leading to social problems and delinquency.

1. Neo-liberal economy: lower government spending and intervene less into people’s every day lives. Promoted: personal responsibility and traditional family values.

Crisis of hegemony: time when the government’s implemented progressive policies were seen as a direct threat of traditional family values.

• This meant new policies were eroding traditional values that made Britain great.

• The New Right wanted a return to the Golden Age of family life: stability, male breadwinner.

• Criticised matriarchal families as they lacked discipline to socialise children.

Charles Murray’s view of the family, new right

strongly belives people should have control over their own lives and not rely on the welfare state.

• welfare state: acts as a safety net for people who are unable to support themselves in society. e.g. services (NHS, fire rescue) and benefits (housing, pensions)

• culture of dependency: Murray believed there was a growing underclass of people relying on overly generous government benefits that discouraged work.

  • lone parent families create a generation of “idle young men” who lack the discipline that father figures could provide.

  • underclass choose life of benefits and pre-marriage child bearing which results in moral decay —> criminal/ anti-social behaviours

criticisms of social policy in accordance with dominant family ideology

• Feminist and Marxists suggest many social policies are formed with a singular view of the family.

• Nuclear family is shown throughout society as the ideal as valued by Functionalists and the New Right. It is as “cereal packet” family because it has been idealised and shown most in advertising. This means we are socialised into striving for it because it is the best.

  - married parents - patriachal structure - traditional family values

  - personal responsibility - romantic love - instrumental and expressive roles

social policy

plan or action taken by government agencies to make changes in society. As family life changes, governments have to decide how they react.

( direct: policies aimed specifically at family life e.g. laws on marriage, contraception. )

(indirect- policies on other issues but also affect families e.g. compulsory schooling provides childcare for working parents but also keeps children dependent for longer)

1. embrace social change and introduce policies that support family diversity

2. reject social change and develop policies that stop/ reverse change to strengthen dominant ideology.

examples of social policy

• 1967, abortion law: 2 doctors have to approve decision and it must meet one criteria out of seven.

• 1988, section 28: stopped schools teaching homesexuality was acceptable

• 2010, welfare cuts- welfare for families lowered by over 40%

• 2013, same-sex marriage: allows couples of same sex to get married.

Domestic division of labour

DDOL- the way tasks are divided up in a household between its members

• this is influenced by gender roles

• when couples have traditional beliefs about male and female roles, women do more domestic labour than in households where belifes reflect sexual equality

• 75% of men and women believe the DDOL is very fair or somewhat fair.

UK time use survey, 2000

• studied 6500 households- 11,700 participants

• keep a diary of how they spend time one week day and one day at the weekend

  men- 2hrs, 20mins

  women- 4hrs

  92% of women did laundry

  94% of men did DIY

nPower study, 2002

• women do twice as much housework as men

  • women > 2 hours

  • men < 1 hours

• men are now doing more than ever (1940- 15 mins)

however spend more time in paid employment, meaning they spend on average the same amount of time working in a week (~50 hours)

£10,000 increase in female’s wage —> 2 hours less housework per week

Girls average 5x as much housework as boys, but boys are given more money.

Young and Wilmott, functionalists

• used questionnaires to research the domestic division of labour within 6000 families in East London.

• significant shift in conjugal roles in traditional nuclear families.

• concluded there had been a march of progress within the DDOL die to better housing, smaller families, labour-saving devices, higher living standards

Feminists argue that there has not been a march of progress as family is still patriarchal and women still do most of housework and childcare.

• Oakley: Y+W overexaggerate role- husbands helped e.g. ironing shirt once a week

• Boulton: need to look at who is responsible rather than who performs them e.g. wife responsible for children’s welfare even when men ‘help’

symmetrical family/neo- conventional family

• both spouses work rather than male breadwinner

• however, chester argue the nuclear family still remains dominant. most people do still marry, bring up their children as a couple and don’t divorce.

segregated conjugal roles →	→ integrated conjugal roles
clearly defined roles men bring in money, do heavier and technical jobs in home and women are mainly housewives and are unlikely to have full time paid employment. (big division of labour) likely to have separate friends and different leisure activities.	flexible roles likely to both be in paid employment chores and childcare is shared e.g. new man female partners do traditional male jobs such as DIY share common friends, leisure activities and decision making

Principle of stratified diffusion 🌊

Social changes within the family first occur in the upper class, they are then seen as the norm as the pattern of change filters down through the middle class and then the working class.

Reasons for change from segregated to integrated roles

1. more money- increase in male wages and rising number of women entering paid employment

2. working conditions- decreasing male mortality rate combined with lower unemployment rate

3. geographic mobility- families are moving around more which means there is a weaker support network.

4. less children- enables wives to get a job so more income equality.

5. living standards- men more likely to spend time with family due to increasing entertainment tech at home.

Elizabeth Bott

most important factor influencing conjugal roles: social networks of friends and kin built up by each partner before and during marriage

• tight knit support network in regular contact teases them from drifting from traditional segregated roles.

• nuclear family is more geographically mobile meaning social networks are weaker so there is more reliance on the partners in the relationship which leads to more integration.

Commercialisation fo housework, Silver and Schor- feminists

process of managing or running something for financial gain e.g. the way housework has been changed by capitalists who have tried to make money from it

• new technological goods and services that women can purchase to reduce the amount of time they need to spend on domestic labour

• goods: ring doorbell, smart fridge, microwave, robot hoover

  • makes housework less time consuming and easier

  • less skills needed- encourages men and children to do more

• services: cut down on the amount of time required for everyday tasks e.g. shop online

  • 80% of British families say they regularly shop online

  • top purchases for women- food, clothes, medicine- which all benefit wider family

“death of the housewife”: women who are working or live with middle class male breadwinners can afford services and goods meaning housework is reduced. however, middle class women trap working class women in a “burden of pain” by paying them to take over the domestic duties they either don’t have time for or do not want to do.

The double/ second shift- feminists

Feminists reject Young and Wilmott’s claim of the nuclear family being symmetrical with more integrated roles and argue that a rise in female employment has not been met with a rise in male domestic work.

Therefore, inequality has increased as working women are still expected to do domestic tasks so now they have to do a double shift of both paid work and domestic work.

Braun: fathers had provider ideology rather than being the primary caregiver

Dex and Ward: only 1% of fathers took responsibility for caring for a sick child.

2008, British social attitudes survery

• 75% of mothers do most of the cooking for their children.

• 40% of British men felt that housework was a “woman’s job”.

• 20% of men admitted they never cleaned

  → housework was found to be the second largest cause of domestic disagreements.

Arlie Hochschild, second shift

Arlie Hochschild, second shift

Working women still end up taking on the role of housewife. All women experience a period of full time housework, some only return to part time work when their youngest child starts school.

• used systematic sampling in the Fortune 500 (every 13th person in each company)

• married couples who both worked with children under 6

• non-participant overt observation with interviews- more believable data than Young + Wilmott

  → women better at multitasking

  → happier families when they shared second shift

  → workplace is designed for men with stay at home wives

Ann Oakley, feminist

Families cannot be symmetrical due to the double shift- reject Young and Wilmott’s claim that there has been a march of progress within the family for women.

Argues that Y+W overexaggerated the contributions men were making- when men did choose to help, it was by selecting the fun and simple tasks, so women had no choice but to do everything else.

factory act, 1847

the housewife role became cemented as it excluded women from the workplace and confined them to a life within the home.

Duncombe and Marsden, triple shift

Women have to take on emotional work required to keep a family together e.g. mediator

• after separation/ divorce- 1/3 of men have little contact with kids, 1/8 no contact

emotional work, domestic labour, paid work

Domestic work vs paid employment

Paid employment

• have breaks, and holidays, and can take sick days

• can make friends with colleages- although some may be tricky to work with

• have a contract and a pension

• have to have done qualifications

• can strike/ complain if necessary

• more pressure about being fired and reaching deadlines

ultimately depends on what it is…

Domestic work

• monotonous

• no breaks

• solitary isolated actiivity

• no employment contract or workers rights

• no qualifications needed

• unpaid- no incentive/reward

• has little status- not seen as real work at all, little recognition

• overall, value of parent for economy is £700 billion

….and who you are as a person

Stephen edgell, decision making

women only had sole responsibility for decisions in relatively unimportant areas e.g. decoration, food, kids clothes. men are more likely to have final say on the most important decisions e.g. moving house, taking out loans.

• material: this is due to men having greater share of resources and demanding bigger say as they earn more while women are economically dependent.

  • allowance system: men work and give wives allowance

  • pooling: joint bank account

• cultural: gender role socialisation in patriarchal society instils idea that men are breadwinners.

Consequences of inequality for women

Women’s continuing responsibility for housework and childcare means that their career suffers which holds back their earning power.

Working women are limited in the jobs and hours they can do e.g. still have to take responsibility for the housework and be home to pick up kids from school.

Means women struggle to progress in careers or gain more qualifications.

42% of women in paid employment are part time (12% for men)

Radical feminists- men are the main people who benefit as the inequalities are due to the patriarchy. the family reinforces and reproduces male domination.

Marxist feminists- capitalism benefits as women provide free work and consume goods and services

Caroline Garrell, women returning after maternity leave

highly qualified women are discriminated against after returning to work after maternity leave.

• nicknamed Jelly Heads

• have to accept lower status downgraded postions

• do not fight it as could face further labelling and discrimination

dark Side of the family

Feminists argue that families are patriarchal with an imbalance of power that disadvantages women.

The cumulative effects of inequality manifest into the dark side of the family which challenges the idealised view of the cereal packet family stereotype.

e.g. physical abuse, emotional abuse, verbal abuse, female on male abuse, children absuing parents, child abuse, neglect of the elderly, forced marriage, rape in marriage, divorce disputes, restraining orders, economic control, decision making, murder and family related violence

Due to the private nature of the family, accurate evidence on the extent of violence and abuse within the family is difficult to obtain, and fear/ shame means that many incidents are covered up.

Primarily women and children are on the receiving end, and men are the main perpetrators.

emotional abuse

Emotional abuse- verbal assault, dominance, control, isolation, ridicule or the use of intimate knowledge for degradation.

targets emotional and psychological wellbeing of victim

contribute to depression and low self esteem

Gaslighting- making the victim doubt their own reality, memories and perception

Isolation- preventing victim for accessing services, educational and social opportunities and seeing friends

failure to respect privacy e.g. readings person’s emails, going through belongings

NSPCC: research with 2275 young people, 1/5 have been emotionally abused

punished by a prison sentence up to 5 years.

• 90% done by parents, 60% done by mum

child abuse

physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological maltreatment of a child

neglect- child or young person not looked after properly e.g. food, clothing, medically

• 1 in 4 girls, 1 in 13 boys

physical abuse- purposely hurting a child or young person e.g. hitting, burning, drowning

sexual abuse- child or young person asked/ forced to take part in or watch sexual activity

emotional abuse- child or young person made to feel worthless, wrong, bullied or scared

Seymour, Feminist

child sexual abuse in an expression of male supremacy due to the patriarchy

the patriarchy provides male with social opportunities to commit child sexual abuse

hard to adequately explain what motivates males to commit this

domestic abuse

• 6.6 million assaults per year

• ¼ women assaulted by partner at some time

  • however sats are underestimate due to under- reporting (e.g. suffer 35 assaults before reporting) and under- recording (police often unwilling to investigate as in private sphere of the family as you are free to leave in unhappy- many cannot due to being dependent)

radical feminists

men oppress women, and control women in family. they benefit from domestic labour and sexual services.

men also dominate the state and CJS meaning domestic violence is not taken seriously.

→ Dobash and Dobash: violence was triggered when husband felt their authority was being challenged. marriage legitimatizes violence by giving power to men.

does not explain women against men, or child abuse

• families with a lack of resources are also more likely to suffer domestic abuse as suffer more stress which increases the risk of violence

• marxists argue that male workers exploited at work take out their frustrations on their wives.

murder and family related violence

person of sound mind unlawfully killing a human being with intent to kill or cause grevious bodily harm

most common on parent to child

victims often have a kind of vulnerability

Men who murder their families

• 91% of perpetrators of familicide were men

• most had access to a gun

• most had previously domestically abused

• most had access to a gun, and said they most likely would not have comitted this without access

• most had previously domestically abused

• 40% “jealous substance abuser”

Fran Ansley, marxist feminist

• women are “takers of shit” as being a housewife involves absorbing the frustration their husband feels due to alienation/ exploitation at work.

• instead of men’s anger being aimed at capitalism, women suffer domestic abuse and violence.

• on average: female victims suffer 35 assaults over 7 years before informing government agency.

forced marriage

face physical pressure to marry (threats, violence) or emotional and psychological pressure- illegal in the UK,

• 2023, marriage and civil partnership minimum age act- 16 → 18

• 2019: 80% of victims female

• 2021: 22 million people living in a forced marriage

marital rape

• before 1992, forced sexual activity within marriage was not illegal

• the wife was considered to have provided onoing consent through the contract of marriage

• 1991: R vs R changed marital rape law

  • man was convicted for raping wife

  • House of Lords unanimously decided to overwhelm existing law

- women cannot be charged with comitting rape (penil penetration), but that is sexual assault or coercion

poverty statistics in the UK

2012: 21% of UK population living in relative poverty

• 33% of households lack 3+ basic necessities e.g. food, heat, insurance

• 18 million live in inadequate housing conditions

• 1 in 3 can’t afford to heat their homes properly

• 1 in 5 adults have to borrow money to pay for day-day needs

women in poverty

- 700,000 more women in poverty than men

- more likely to sacrifice their own standard of living to provide food, clothing and extras to their kids

- more likely to be in low paid/ part time work

children in poverty

- 1.3 million children in poverty

- more likely to live in low-income households than pensioners or working age adults

- has negative effects on health and psychological development, as well as leading to wider social problems such as crime and anti-social behavior.

Coates and Silburn

• Poverty is cumulative as poverty can lead to further poverty

• This builds up a vicious cycle which the poor find hard to escape from.

• While the rich can pass down wealth through inheritance, the poor can only pass down their poverty through a cycle of deprivation. 🌀

beveridge report

• recommended development of state- run welfare services

• cause of poverty: idleness, want, disease, ignorance and squalor

• “womb to the tomb”- now cradle to the grave

→ NHS, 1948- provides British citizens with a variety of services free at point of use

types of benefits

• universal: everyone claim them e.g. maternity pay, child benefit, state pension

• selective: only available for those eligible via means testing e.g. disability,job seeking, housing

  • assesses each applicant’s situation to decide which benefits they quality for and how much you receive

issues with benefits being unclaimed

1. due to benefits and the tax system being complicated

2. or people lacking knowledge of their rights and correct procedures

3. benefits are not worth the effort it takes

new right perspective of welfare state

• government want to roll back welfare state by cutting welfare spending, privatizing some services and opening up competition to raise quality.

  • this will give fathers more incentive to provide for their family.

• an attempt to tackle a “culture of dependency” by introducing new range of policies e.g. benefits for disabled and childcare benefits cut down, housing benefits capped (less rent covered)

  • the current benefits are too generous because it undermines the family’s self reliance- the less families depend on the state, the better.

  • Murray sees benefits as perverse incentives so reward irresponsible behaviour e.g. state providing benefits to mothers mean more fathers leave

Allan and Crow, post modernists

• up until 1960 there was a standard life course that was experienced by most individuals

• reinforced by social norms and considered “proper and expected” way

life course

sequence of events individuals experiece as they progress through different stages of their lives, and the choices they make about their relationships

1. get married

   • norm learnt from parents and reinforced across pop culture and the church

   • being an unmarried adult caused a massive social stigma

   • marriages started earlier and lasted long

     1950- 82% of females (18-64) were married

2. move in together

   • without marriage couples were fought to be living in sin (people feared God’s punishment)

   • 78% of households were inhabited by married couples

   • law gave married couples more rights on home ownership

3. have sex

   • pre-marital sex was immoral and illicit

   • when the birth control pill was legalised (1961) many were angered as it “removed only natural barrier to illicit sex” (the fear of conception)

4. have children

   • having children was seen as women’s natural destiny and the ultimate reason to do things

   • only 5% of children were born out of wedlock (now almost 50%)

feminist perspective on social policy

social policies shape and define family life in ways that benefit men and maintain the patriarchy, disadvantaging women.

• LAND: policies often assume the patriarchal family is the norm. as a result policies act as a self fulfilling prophecy helping to reproduce the patriarchal family. e.g. maternity leave is more longer than paternity leave reinforcing women’s responsibility for childcare.

not all policies maintain the patriarchy e.g. women’s refuges, laws against marital rape.

• sweden, policies treat women as individuals instead of dependents.

social policies can either encourage or discourage gender equality in the family.

• familistic gender regime: assume traditional gender division. e.g. in greece there is little state welfare so women have to rely on support from extended kin.

• individualistic gender regimes- treat husband and wives as the same. e.g. in sweden, equal opportunity policies, parental leaves, good welfare services→ mea women are more independent and have more opportunities to work.

Individualization thesis and Tony Giddens (post modernist)

individualization- relationships become more influenced by self-interest and love than practical necessity.

Tony Giddens, post modernist

• there were a series of significant social and legal changes that have given people more choice meaning people no longer feel pressure to follow traditional life course

• no longer useful to discuss “the family” due to increasing diversity and choice but more appropriate to study each individual family differently

• Giddens: argues individualization ( we choose how to lead our lives) has brought a change in relationships from romantic to confluent love.

  • romantic- when people fall in love, get married and stay together regardless of how the relationship is going

  • confluent- active and conditional love where people choose to be together due to emotional and sexual needs

• Pure relationship: only lasts when both partners are happy within it and their needs are met rather than due to a sense of commitment.

  • Giddens suggest relationships are part of process of self discovery as people try different relationships to “find themselves”.

  • couples free to define relationships themselves rather than acting out prescribed roles defined by tradition

  • this and contraception creates plastic sexuality as childbearing and sex are separated.

→ Beck, negotiated family: equality and individualism has created negotiated family which varies according to its members wishes. this means it is less stable because there is more emphasis on the needs of the individual rather than the family and individuals are more free to leave.

connected thesis, Smart- we are not disembedded individuals as we do make decisions about relationships within a social context or web of connectedness. we are not just free to leave as still have connections e.g. divorcees still remain linked by their children. traditional patriarchal norms and equalities still limit people’s decisions.

Weeks and homosexuality

Construction of homosexuality as abnormal and establishment of gender roles has led to the nuclear family (heterosexual couple) being considered the only legitimate family.

Individualization has led to homosexual people choose families of choice.

• used to get told how to live by state and church but these have lost power to influence morality

• new right’s opposition to family diversity is a losing battle as sexuality and family diversity are widely accepted.

Family diversity, Robert and Rhona Rapaport

• used secondary sources

idealised nuclear family was a myth and the dominant family ideology was changing meaning a wide wide variety of different family structures were becoming more normal.

1. organisational diversity: variations in family diversity, household type and differences in domestic division of labour. differences between dual-worker families, nuclear family and lone parent families and reconstituted families (result of divorce and repartnering and remarriage)

2. cultural diversity: south asian families tend to be more traditional and patriarchal but also more likely to be extended families. african carribean families more likely to centre around mother than father, and also have more lone-parent families.

3. social class diversity: found differences between working class and middle class families in terms of how children are socialised and in terms of support networks.

   • middle class families more pro education

   • w/c 25% more likely to have baby first in life course, and 10 years earlier than m/c

   • middle class families tend to be more isolated while w/c families are embedded in extended family networks.

4. life course diversity: young adults, middle aged, and the elderly will all have different living arrangements. married couples with babies or uni students have completely different family life.

5. cohort diversity: people born in the same year have shared experience of historical events that influence family life. e.g. couples in 1950 viewed traditional gender roles as the norm

Living Apart together, Irene Levin (postmodernist)

increasing number of individuals are in long term, commited, intimate relationships and define themselves as couples but do not share a common home. this is due to increased individualisation and family diversity.

• younger adults may be split apart geographically by university or by other job opportunities.

• for other adults, this is an active choice which may become norm or may be temporary until they move in together.

modern technology can also create LATS as people form virtual relationships which may turn into long distance relationships. 2019- 1/3 of relationships started online.

1. responsibility and care: couple have existing responsibilites for other people so don;t want relationship to threaten other one e.g carer or have children from previous partners

2. practical reasons: apartners may be working or studying in different places. for older people they may fear losing memories of their home.

3. risk: apartners don’t want to repeat the same mistake so avoid risk of creating same conditions that led to break up in former relationships.

types of marriage

Monogamy- only being married to one individual person at a time

Polygamy- being married to more than one person at a time (crime- bigamy)

• e.g. Warren Jeffs had 9 wives

Arranged marriage- parents suggest potential spouses to their children who then make marriage decision and give consent- but there is a lot of social pressure to conform.

• India- 88%

marriage statistics

• Marriage rates are decreasing

• 2025 average age: men-38, women-35.7 1972 average age: men- 29, women 26

• 56% of same sex marriage is female

reasons for declining marriage

1. secularisation- declining influence of the church means that there is less social stigma as living together/ sex before marriage is no longer considered ‘living in sin’

2. expense- average wedding costs £30,000

3. confluent love- many people seek perfect person for ‘pure relationship’ rather than marrying for security and commitment.

4. divorce rates- children see parents get divorced so do not find proposition of repeating experience attractive

• Some people marry after a successful period of living together as cohabitation is less stigmatised.

• In the past, women may have seen marriage as necessary to gain security of a husband, but now woman expect to have careers and independence, and financial security so delay getting married. This impact of feminism means women see marriage as more of a patriarchal institution.

• Men are more likely to get remarried.

Cohabitation and statistics

Postmodernists argue that marriage is one of many choices people can choose for their own life course, considered obsolete/ redundant.

Cohabitation

• arrangement where couples live together in an intimate relationship without being married

• 3.4 million couples in the UK- this has doubled since 2000

→ less stigma to sex outside marriage due to secularisation

→ women do not need financial security of marriage.

reason for cohabitating

1. temporary arrangement- young people in casual relationships who decide to live together without any long term plans or commitments. or those who enter relationships with people they already live with (flatmates)

2. alternative arrangement- people do not necessarily believe in marriage and see cohabitation as the ideal substitute. they live in a long term commitment but without patriarchal dimensions or legal commitments. they may have had a bad experience as a child.

3. trial arrangement- try living with partner and see if it will work out/ is worthwhile before marrying

   • 2022- 80% of first time marriages were preceded by a period of cohabitation

Patricia Morgan new right, opinion on cohabitating

• cohabitation is responsible for the decline in marriage

• less stables, happy, fulfilled

• more abuse and depression

• “rarely approach relational issues seriously”- several small issues build up

  • those who cohabitate and marry have 65% higher chance of divorcing than those who just marry.

Legal change increasing divorce rates

1800s	only men could divorce and it was very expensive
1969, divorce reform act	before this, the person wanting divorce had to prove matrimonial offence, but after this divorce was possible if they had been separated 2+ years.
1984	couples could apply for divorce after 1 year of marriage rather than 3
1996	had to be married for 18 months and had to do marriage counselling

current divorce rate and who most vulnerable to

45% not including separation and empty shell marriages

teenage marriages, childless couples, serial monogamists

Divorce process

1. have to submit divorce petition which states grounds for divorce- explains reason for marriage ending

2. have to pay £550 and send your marriage certificate.

3. husband and wife will be sent copy of divorce application (and adulterer)

4. you can then apply for the decree absolute after 43 days.

Grounds for divorce

1. adultery- sexual intercourse with someone of the opposite sex. cannot claim if you have lived together for 6 months after you found out.

2. unreasonable behaviour- physical violence, drug taking, neglecting

3. desertion- left without your agreement, without a good reason for more than 2 years.

4. two year separation- if both people agree and have been separated for 2+ years.

5. five year separation- if only one person agrees then you can divorce after 5 years.

→ no longer needed: No Fault Divorce, 2022- irretrievable breakdown

Social change increasing divorce rates

Changing role of women

• 2/3 of divorce petitions are filed by women showing that more women than men are unhappy with their marriage.

• women’s expectations and quality of their relationships has risen so therefore are less willing to accept patriarchal nature of marriage and traditional roles to sacrifice their own leisure activities and independence. they are more aware of patriarchal oppression at home due to increased equality in the workplace.

• now a norm for married women to be in employment which increases financial independence and reduces extent of dependence.

• lone parent welfare benefits are available so divorce is a more viable option.

Growing secularization

• declining influence of religious beliefs and institutions

• Goode and Gibson: marriage becomes less of a sacred, spiritual union and more of a personal and practical commitment.

• less than a 1/3 of marriages today include a religious ceremony.

Changing social attitudes

• rising divorce rates are a product of growing individualisation and uncertainty of post modern societies

• all aspects of our lives are subject to more choice e.g. husband and wife negotiate over who does which chores and how to organise finances.

• people now have greater individual freedom of choice and are less constrained by traditional expectations and norms.

• divorce has become more socially acceptable as there is less stigma and disapproval- it becoming more common also then normalises it so making it more socially acceptable.

• people are less scared of the consequences of divorce so seek legal end to an unhappy marriage rather than continuing in an empty shell marriage

• there is weakened commitment within relationships because people search for personal fulfilling relationship.

Legal changes- divorce is now cheaper, equally accessible from both sexes and has more reasons to make it possible.

Higher expectations of marriage- marriage is now purely based on love rather than duty or economic factors. This means that before, the family was a unit of production so people had lower expectations and were not dissatisfied by absence of love so divorce was less common, but now if love dies there is no longer any reason to stay together. if the marriage fails to deliver personal fulfilment people become more unwilling to stay.

Consequences of divorce

SPOUSES	CHILDREN
decisions about how to divide property and posessions agreeing childcare and finances divorced men are more likely to remarry	keeping in contact with the parent they are not living with may be benefits e.g. less conflict adjusting to new set of relationships especially in a blended family

Mclanghan and Sandefur- children who experience divorce will not fare as well in life as their peers who live with married parents (surveys)

• 2x more likely to drop out of high school

• 2x more likely to become single parents themselves

helen Wilkinson, liberal feminist and post modernist

• genderquake- a sudden shift of power from men to women

• the family has been affected by big changes in the economy over the last 30 years

  • evolved from heavy industry and factory manufaction to a service economy e.g. financial, retail and public sector jobs

  • most of the new service jobs have been taken up by women

  • women now see education and careers as much more important than marriage.

effect on women due to the genderquake

The traditional stereotype of women as mothers who have the responsibility for running the home has been replaced by role models of strong, independent and succesful women in all spheres of life.

• women have become more succesful than me in business, music, law, medicine

• some argue women have better “people skills” and communicate more effectivly than men which is crucial in some service jobs

• increased economic power means women rely less on male breadwinners.

led to traditional gender roles being weakened so tehre is less social pressure to abide by them

ladettes

many females taking on aspects of masculinity e.g. loudness, heavy drinking and agressive sexuality

• WHO, Uk girls are most violent in whole world

• emergence of violent girl gangs

Martin Mao an Ghaill, crisis of masculinity

Genderquake and rapid social changes are causing a crisis of masculinity

• men feel threatened by increasing female power and gay liberation

• some are misogynistic and reject feminism BUT others are lost and searching for gender identity that fits in the modern world

Jackson Katz, tough guise (postmodernist)

• young boys are socialised into dangerous culture of toxic masculinity

• men’s violence in America is due to society being unable to move beyond old fashioned ideals of manhood.

• analysed different crimes e.g. gun violence, bullying, violence against women, and found culture has normalised violent and regressive forms of masculinity

New man, RW Connell

Some men have embraced the genderquake- new man

• more caring, sharing, gentle, emotional, sensitive

• family and love more important than achieving career success or power

e.g. Bravehearts- go on retreats to explore what is meant to be masculine now

• open up and talk about anything- no judgements

metrosexual

hetrosexual men who embrace their feminine side, use cosmetic products and are in touch with their feelings

80% of me have anxieties about body

male grooming has grown by 800% in last 25 years

retrosexual

against metrosexual

• masculinity based on old fashioned male values

• embrace enhancing appearance if linked to masculinity

Stay at home dads

• more men are taking on parts of domestic division of labour associated with Parson’s definition of ‘expressive role’

• choosing to be stay at home dads as they prefer the lifestyle or their partner can be breadwinner

• now make up 10% of UK stay at home parents

childhood as a social construct

• Sociologists see childhood as socially constructed, meaning it is something created and defined by society.

  • for some it is about chronological age.

  • for some it is about biology and physically “growing up”

  • still being able to be protected by specific laws

  • for some it is about freedom from responsibility

• Tend to think of childhood as clear and separate period of life different from the world of adults.

• In childhood, children receive a long period of support and socialisation by adults before themselves

inequalities among children

gender- girls expected to do more housework

ethnic differences- asian parents more likely than parents of other ethnic groups to be stricter

class inequalities- poor children more likely to die in infancy or do badly at school

Stephen wagg

• as childhood is socially constructed, this is not on single universal experience.

• all humans go through the same physical process of ageing but what it means to be a child also depends on factors such as social class, ethnicity and gender.

different status, responsibilities, and treatment of kids in different cultures.

• In many other societies (simpler, non-industrial), children take on adult roles as soon as they are physically able, such as manual. 1/7 children involved in work.

• behaviour expected of children and of adults less clearly separated.

• In particular, girls are vulnerable to sexual exploitation as they are more likely to be abused, raped or trafficked. 1/10 girls experience sexual violence.

• In the case of child soldiers, kids are given weapons used to brutalise and kill other kids as part of adult conflicts . 2008- in 21 countries.

→ in UK, childhood seen as special innocent, not competent at running their own lives so need to be protected and nurtured

difference is expectations between children in the same society.

2. However, many societies aim to protect young people from these atrocities through special laws that protect children.

   Important to recognise that the conception and experiences of childhood are not the same for everyone even in the same society.

   • social class: (2012)- 27% of children in poverty. richer parents can afford to pay for activities to enhance their personal and social development e.g. dance, music lessons. poorer children are more likely to do activities with less beneficial effects e.g. watch TV

   • gender: girls will have a different and more restricted childhood than boys (bedroom culture) especially asian girls

the way the nature of childhood has changed through history and today.

Philippe Aries- in medieval times, childhood did not exist as separate status. children often moved from infancy to working in the community as ‘mini adults’. e.g. most kids worked from age 7, no toys, games, clothing, schools

→ high death rates encourage indifference and neglect

modern notion of childhood, 13th century

• schools began to specialise in teaching of young

• church saw children as creatures of God who needed discipline and protecting

• growing separation between adults and children

—> industrialisation

- lower infant mortality rates and smaller families: more infants surviving means parents had fewer children and made greater financial and emotional investment

- specialist knowledge about children’s health e.g. theories of child development showed they need protection

- laws banning child labour- from economic assets to liabilities as dependent on parents

- compulsory schooling- separates children from world of work and creates period of dependency

- child protection/ welfare laws: emphasises children’s vulnerability and made their welfare a central concern

- ideo of children’s rights: parents have responsibilites towards them

- laws about social behaviour- increases attitude children are different from adults e.g. minimum age for wide range of activities

however, children are not passive- just shaped and developed by processes like industrialisation. play an important/ activepart in shaping childhood e.g. smart, study of divorce- children actively involved to try to make situation better

march of progress within childhood

medicalization of childhood- low infant mortality rates, NHS care

Education- compulsory until 18, increased funding

Work- laws against child labour, minimum wage for 16-17 year olds

Time- parents spend more time with children, concept of parenting exists

Money- children now have more money to spend than ever before

functionalists opinion on children and the family

• Functionalists argue that the family is constantly improving as societies develop as families are now more “child-centered” so children have a better experience.

• status of children improved substantially (educational, psychological, medical) e.g. better diets, medical care, rights and facilities- more babies survive

• does not mean children are equal to adults: still told by parents what to do, when and where to be

• while many laws are designed to protect children (e.g. against child abuse and labour) many people view them as form of control which limits independence and forces dependence on adults, new forms of oppression means there is too much adult controls.

  • exercise control over time, space and bodies

  • force them to be economically dependent

  • adult control can lead to sexual, emotional or physical abuse

→ these are needed to safeguard children

resistance: children may resist the status by acting older e.g. drinking alcohol, smoking

womick, unhappy children

British children “unhappiest in western world”

• do not feel loved and cared for by their parents

• 3.7 million in poverty

• 33% live away from biological fathers

• top of international league tables for obseity, self harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence, teenage pregnancies

• 43,000 have childcare protection plan

how children rebel

Rees: 9% aged 14-18 run away from home overnight at least once

• 3000 crimes per year committed by those under 10

• 75,000 school children enter youth CJS

• Older people typically complain about youth anti social behavior

• many parents are being blamed for not socializing and supervising their children properly.

neil postman, postmodernist

• Childhood is disappearing as the lifestyles of children and adults are merging.

• Children’s behaviour, language, styles and attitudes are becoming indistinguishable, and are also getting more rights.

• Children are growing up too fast.

  • jenks argues that children are now being greater regulated as adult relationships are becoming more insecure e.g. more divorce meaning parents rely on children to have a secure relationship so are more fearful for their safety.

→ due to television culture replacing print culture

adults had been able to keep knowledge about sex, money, violence, death and other ‘adult’ matters secret from them. but tv culture means info is available to adults and children alike as boundary has weakened between them.

ignores other factors like rising living standards and legal changes

others argue that western norms are not disappearing but spreading as the idea of a separate life stage is being exported globally.

sue palmer, postmodernist

• parents are losing influence over their kids due to the independence that they have gained from modern technology e.g. many children have their own mobile phones

• parents lack control over the information, images and values that their children are exposed to.

• parents attempt to use these devices, along with junk food, to keep children occupied.

• however, technology can create a barrier between parents and children as young people develop their own youth culture that parents do not understand or experience e.g. use of social media

toxic childhood- rapid technological and cultural changes are damaging children’s development e.g. junk food, computers, exams, long hours worked by parents

→ deprived of genuine childhood

julia margo, postmodernist

• the media has a negative influence on kids as it introduces them to adult issues too early.

2007, Cambridge university study: primary school kids express concern about adult related themes like climate change, wealth inequality and terrorism.

2014, Halifax Pocket money: average child age 8-15 got £6.35 a week

• Margo argues younger children use pester power to get their own way

• older children are gullible customers

- loss of childhood is lowering age of first sexual intercourse

1950s: age 20, 1990s: age 16

- advertisers and retailers encourage children to dress and act in a sexually precocious way e.g. youth magazines giving sex tips