SOCI 148 Final Exam

Terms and Questions

Week 1 - Week 2ish

Plato

Democracy

A system of government where the people have the power to make decisions, usually by voting. In a democracy, leaders are chosen by the people, and everyone has a say in how the country is run.

Ex: The United States is a democracy. Citizens vote in elections to choose their president, members of Congress, and local leaders. If people don’t like how a leader is doing their job, they can vote for someone else in the next election.

Tyranny* (Plato)

Is when one person or a small group has all the power and rules in a cruel or unfair way. In tryanny, people usually don’t have a say in decisions, and the leader often uses force or fear to stay in control

Ex: A tyrannical man, who rises to power by manipulating the people. At first, he promises to help people and protect them from the rich. But once he gains power, he eliminates his enemies, sciences opposition, and enslaves the people.

Division of Labor

Is when different people do different jobs based on their skills to make work more efficient

Ex : Producers (Workers and Craftsmen) - Farmers, builders, and artisans who create goods and services. Guardians (Warriors) - Soldiers who protect the city. Rulers (Philosopher-Kings) - Wise leaders who govern based on reason and justice

A blacksmith should focus on making tools instead of trying to be a soldier or ruler. Similarly, a philosopher-kind should lead, not farm.

Kakistocracy

A government run by the worst, least qualified, or most corrupt people. The word comes from the Greek kakistos (meaning “worst) and kratos (meaning “rule” or “power”).

Ex: If a country is led by dishonest and incompetent leader who make bad decisions, ignore experts, and only care about their own power.

Fascism

A far-right political ideology that emphasizes strong, centralized control, dictatorial leadership and often extreme nationalism. Individual freedom are heavily restricted, and the state has total control over many aspects of life, including political, society, and the economy.

Ex. ?

Capitalism

An economic system where the means of production (like businesses, factories, and land) are privately owned and operated for profit.

Ex: Apple, creates and sells products like iPhones, iPads, and MacBooks.The company invest in research and development to create innovative product, and customers buy these products for personal use. Apple profits by selling goods ina competitive market.

Week 2ish

Locke

State of Nature

A concept in political philosophy that describes what life would be like without government, laws, or rules. It’s a way to imagine how people might behave if there were no authorities to keep order. Different philosophers have different views on whether this state would be peaceful or chaotic.

Ex: Imagine two farmers in a world with no government. One farmer grows apples, and another grows wheat. They respect each other’s land and trade peacefully. However, one day, a third person comes and steals apples. Since there's no government or police, the farmer must enforce justice himself. This could lead to revenge and conflict, showing why Locke believed people would eventually form governments to protect their rights and maintain order.

State of War

A concept from John Locke that describes what happens when people stop respecting each other’s rights and use force to get what they want. Unlike the State of Nature, which can be peaceful, the State of War occurs when there is violence, conflict, and no authority to stop it.

Ex: Imagine two neighbors arguing over land. In a State of Nature, they might try to settle it peacefully. But if one neighbor attacks the other to take the land by force, this becomes a State of War—a situation where violence replaces reason. Since there’s no government to stop them, the conflict could continue endlessly.

‘Extent’ of Government

Refers to how much power and control a government should have over people’s lives. Different political philosophers have different views on this. Some believe the government should have limited power, only protecting basic rights, while others think it should have broad power to manage society and enforce laws.

John Locke believed in limited government—it should only protect life, liberty, and property and not interfere too much in people’s lives.

Ex: The government makes laws to protect property but doesn’t control what jobs people can have.

‘Ends’ of Government

Refers to the purpose or goal of having a government. Different philosophers have different views on what the government should aim to achieve.

John Locke believed the main goal of government is to protect people’s natural rights—life, liberty, and property.

Ex: A government creates laws against theft to protect property.

Week 3

Continuing Locke

Tyranny (Locke)

When one person or a small group has absolute power and rules in a cruel or unfair way. A tyrannical leader ignores the rights of the people, makes decisions based on personal desires, and often uses force, fear, or oppression to stay in control.

Ex: A king takes control of a country, bans elections, jails anyone who disagrees with him, and takes people’s land without permission. The people have no way to stop him because he has total power—this is tyranny.

Week 4

Marx

Political State

An organized society with a government, laws, and authority over a group of people within a specific territory. It has the power to make and enforce rules to maintain order and protect its citizens.

Ex: The United States is a political state because it has:

• A government that makes and enforces laws.

• A territory (land with borders).

• Citizens who follow the laws.

Civil Society

Is the part of society where people organize themselves outside of the government to work together, express opinions, and solve problems. It includes groups like charities, clubs, unions, and community organizations that help improve society.

Ex: A neighborhood group that helps clean up parks or a human rights organization that fights for justice—both are examples of civil society because they are groups of people working together for a common cause without being part of the government.

Formal/Political Equality

That everyone is treated the same under the law and has equal political rights regardless of their background (such as wealth, race, or social status). It ensures that all people have the same legal protections and opportunities to participate in government.

Ex: Voting Rights: Every citizen, rich or poor, has the right to vote in an election.

Equal Legal Treatment: A king and a farmer must be treated the same in court under the law.

Formal/Political Emancipation

Refers to the process of granting individuals or groups equal political rights and freedoms, often by removing legal restrictions that previously kept them from fully participating in society. It is about gaining legal equality and political rights, such as voting, holding office, or being recognized as full citizens under the law.

Ex: The Abolition of Slavery: When enslaved people were legally freed and given rights as citizens.

Women’s Suffrage: When women won the right to vote and participate in politics (e.g., the 19th Amendment in the U.S.).

Actual/Human Equality

Refers to the real, practical equality of people, beyond just legal or formal equality. It means that everyone has the same opportunities and resources to live a fulfilling life, regardless of their background, wealth, or social status. It's about ensuring that everyone has access to the same chances for education, health, and economic success, not just the right to be treated equally by law.

Ex: Equal Access to Education: Every child, no matter their family’s income, can go to a good school and have the same chance to succeed.

Wealth Distribution: People have equal access to resources, like healthcare or jobs, so no one is unfairly left behind due to poverty or discrimination.

Actual/Human Emancipation

Beyond just legal or political freedom to involve the complete liberation of individuals from social, economic, and cultural oppression. It means creating a society where people are not only legally equal but also have the real ability to pursue their goals, free from poverty, discrimination, or exploitation.

Ex: Ending Poverty: People aren’t just legally free, but they also have equal access to resources like food, shelter, education, and healthcare, allowing everyone to live a dignified life.

Ending Discrimination: Beyond laws against racism or sexism, true emancipation means creating a society where individuals are free from prejudice in everyday life—like being able to succeed in a job or education based on merit, not their background or identity.

Double Existence

Refers to a situation where a person experiences two conflicting identities or roles simultaneously, often due to external pressures or social expectations. It can involve living one life in private and another in public, or balancing two different, often opposing, aspects of one’s identity. This term is often used to describe individuals who are caught between different social roles or expectations, such as gender, class, or cultural identity.

Ex: Imagine a person who has to act very differently at work—where they may need to be professional, reserved, and follow corporate rules—while at home, they feel free to be themselves, more relaxed and open. This person is living a "double existence" because their behavior and identity are shaped by different environments.

Human Nature

Refers to the innate qualities, behaviors, and instincts that are thought to be common to all humans, regardless of culture, society, or environment. It involves aspects of human existence such as how we think, feel, and behave, and what drives our actions.

Ex: Humans have a natural desire for social interaction. We are generally inclined to form relationships, cooperate with others, and seek companionship. This need for connection is often considered a part of human nature.

Week 5

Davis

Intersectionality

Is a concept used to understand how different aspects of a person's identity (like race, gender, class, sexuality, ability, etc.) overlap and interact to create unique experiences of privilege or oppression. It shows that people can face multiple forms of discrimination or advantage at the same time, and these layers of identity can't be understood in isolation from each other.

Ex: Imagine a Black woman. She may face challenges because of both her race and gender. The discrimination she experiences isn't just based on being a woman or being Black—it's the combination of these two factors that creates a unique experience of oppression.

Patriarchy

A social system in which men hold primary power and authority over women and other gender minorities. In a patriarchy, men typically dominate roles in politics, business, family structure, and other areas of society. It often leads to the idea that men are superior and women are subordinate, influencing social norms, laws, and cultural practices.

Ex: In many traditional societies, men are often expected to be the primary breadwinners, heads of the family, and leaders in society, while women are expected to take on domestic roles, such as raising children and maintaining the home. This unequal distribution of power is an example of patriarchy.

Class exploitation

Refers to the situation in which one social class takes advantage of or profits from the labor and work of another class, typically without giving them fair compensation or benefits. This is often seen in capitalist societies, where the working class (often called the proletariat) provides labor, while the ruling class (the bourgeoisie, or business owners) profits from that labor.

Ex: Imagine a factory where workers produce goods, but the factory owner keeps most of the profit and pays the workers only a small wage. The workers are working hard to make the product, but they aren’t receiving the full value of what they produce. This is class exploitation because the owner is benefiting from the workers’ labor without giving them a fair share of the rewards.

Solidarity

Refers to the unity or agreement among individuals or groups with a common interest, goal, or purpose. It’s the sense of supporting one another, especially in times of struggle, to achieve a common good. Solidarity often involves people coming together to help or advocate for those who are facing challenges or oppression.

Ex: Imagine a group of workers in a factory going on strike together to demand higher wages. Even if they each face personal hardships by not working, they stand together in solidarity because they believe in the common cause of fair pay for all workers. Their collective action strengthens their ability to negotiate and stand up for their rights.

‘selling-out’

Refers to an individual or group compromising their values or principles in exchange for personal gain or social acceptance, especially when they abandon their original goals in pursuit of power, money, or status. This term is often used in social, political, or cultural contexts to criticize people who betray their initial beliefs or community in order to fit into mainstream society or gain privileges.

Ex: Imagine an activist who originally fought for social justice but then accepts a high-paying job in a corporate company that exploits workers. In doing so, they abandon their advocacy for workers’ rights to gain wealth and status. This is seen as "selling out" because they compromised their core beliefs for personal benefit.

Political ‘Expediency’

Refers to actions or decisions that are made based on what is most practical or beneficial in the short-term, often regardless of moral principles or long-term consequences. It typically involves prioritizing immediate political gains or practical needs over ethical concerns, sometimes leading to compromises or opportunistic behavior.

Ex: A politician might support a policy they don’t fully agree with because it will help them win an election or gain support from a powerful group, even if the policy isn’t aligned with their values. This is political expediency—making decisions based on what works now, rather than what is necessarily the best for society in the long run.

Political Emancipation

Refers to the process of gaining political rights and freedom within a society. This means individuals or groups move from being oppressed or restricted by laws or systems, to being legally recognized as equal participants in the political system. Political emancipation typically involves gaining the right to vote, hold office, and be treated equally under the law.

Ex: Women’s Suffrage: In many countries, women were not allowed to vote. When they gained the right to vote, this was a form of political emancipation because it allowed them to participate in decision-making processes on an equal footing with men.

Abolition of Slavery: When enslaved people were legally freed and granted citizenship and the right to vote, this was another example of political emancipation.

Human Emancipation

Refers to the complete liberation of individuals from oppression, exploitation, and inequality—not just in political or legal terms, but also in social, economic, and cultural spheres. It involves not only gaining political rights but also achieving freedom from social and economic constraints, ensuring that every person has the opportunity to live a dignified life, free from discrimination, poverty, and marginalization.

Ex: Ending Economic Exploitation: For example, workers not only having the right to vote but also gaining fair wages, safe working conditions, and the right to organize would be part of human emancipation.

Social Justice Movements: The fight for racial equality, gender equality, and LGBTQ+ rights involves not only legal recognition but also the dismantling of the social norms and structures that perpetuate inequality.

Week 6

Duggan

Neoliberalism

Is an economic and political philosophy that emphasizes free-market capitalism, minimal government intervention, and individual responsibility. It advocates for policies that prioritize privatization, deregulation, and globalization, with the belief that these practices will lead to economic growth, efficiency, and prosperity for all.

In many countries, privatizing public services like healthcare or transportation is a common neoliberal policy. For example, in the 1980s, Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US pushed for policies that cut taxes, reduced government spending, and sold state-owned businesses to private companies, believing that the market could better serve people’s needs than government-run programs.

Social-Cultural Project

Refers to an initiative or program designed to transform or enhance the social and cultural aspects of a community or society. It aims to address specific social issues, promote cultural expression, and improve the quality of life through collective action, often emphasizing social justice, community engagement, and cultural development.

Ex: A community center project in a multicultural neighborhood could organize activities like art workshops, language classes, and cultural festivals to celebrate different traditions and help integrate diverse groups. At the same time, it might provide support for low-income families through education programs or career training, helping address both cultural and social issues.

Political-Economic System

Refers to the relationship between political and economic structures within a society, describing how political institutions, laws, and power dynamics influence economic processes, and how economic conditions, resources, and distribution of wealth affect political decisions and governance.

Ex: Capitalism (economic system) + Democracy (political system): In a capitalist democracy, the government may regulate the market to ensure competition, but private ownership of businesses and a free-market economy are central. Political decisions can shape the economy through policies like taxation or trade regulations.

‘Ideology of Discreet Spheres of Life’

Refers to the belief or notion that different aspects of life (such as work, family, politics, and personal life) should be kept separate from one another. This ideology suggests that these spheres should not interfere with each other and should be treated as distinct domains with their own rules, values, and behaviors.

Ex: A CEO of a company might be expected to behave with a strictly professional demeanor at work, focusing on business decisions and profits, while at home, they may adopt a different role as a parent or spouse, where emotional connection and support are more important than professional efficiency.

Politics is often seen as a separate sphere where government decisions should be made based on rational policies and not be overly influenced by personal emotions or family matters.

Privatization

Is the process of transferring the ownership and control of a government-owned business, service, or industry to private individuals or companies. The goal is to reduce government involvement in certain sectors of the economy and allow private entities to manage these areas, usually with the intention of improving efficiency, reducing costs, or stimulating competition.

Ex: In many countries, telecommunications or public transportation services that were previously government-owned (like phone services or bus systems) have been privatized, meaning private companies now own and manage these services. For instance, a national rail service might be sold to a private corporation, which is now responsible for its operation and can set prices for tickets.

Week 7

Cooper and Marcuse

New Social Conservatism

A political ideology that combines traditional values, particularly around issues such as family, religion, and morality, with a focus on strong national identity and cultural preservation. It often emphasizes traditional family structures, religious freedom, and opposition to social reforms (e.g., LGBTQ+ rights, abortion).

Ex: In the United States, the Moral Majority and Religious Right movements in the 1980s were central to the rise of New Social Conservatism. Groups like these advocated for policies promoting traditional family values, school prayer, and the pro-life stance on abortion.

‘Family Values’

Refers to a set of moral and social beliefs that emphasize the importance of the traditional family structure—typically understood as a heterosexual marriage with children. These values are often associated with conservative ideologies and have been used as a way to define what is considered "moral" or "acceptable" in society. Cooper argues that the promotion of "family values" often serves political purposes, aiming to maintain social order and cultural norms, especially in the face of changing social structures and progressive movements.

Ex: In political debates, some conservative politicians argue that the traditional family (father, mother, and children) is the backbone of society, and that upholding these family structures is essential for social stability and moral integrity. For instance, during the 1980s and 1990s in the U.S., the "family values" movement was prominent among Republican figures like Pat Robertson and Newt Gingrich, who used it as a tool to critique liberal policies and social changes, such as divorce, same-sex marriage, and abortion.

Family Wage

Refers to the concept of a wage or income that is believed to be sufficient to support an entire family, particularly the male breadwinner who provides for his wife and children. This idea emerged in the industrial era and became a core feature of labor market policies and social expectations, particularly in Western capitalist societies.

Ex: In the mid-20th century, during the post-WWII era in the United States and many other Western nations, it was expected that a single male worker could earn a wage that was enough to support his wife and children, allowing the wife to stay home and manage the household. This idea became tied to the concept of a stable family unit and was central to economic policies and social expectations of the time.

Liberal Totalitarianism

A concept that combines elements of liberalism with characteristics of totalitarianism. It refers to a political system where the government is authoritarian and exercises control over individuals' lives in ways that are typically associated with totalitarian regimes, but does so under the guise of liberal democratic principles such as individual rights and freedom.

Ex: A government might claim to promote human rights and individual freedoms, while simultaneously enforcing strict policies that limit certain freedoms (such as freedom of speech, privacy, or assembly) in the name of security or public order. For example, it might use surveillance technologies to monitor citizens, control the internet, or suppress dissent under the pretext of protecting national security. In some cases, these actions could be justified through legal frameworks that appear democratic but are actually used to maintain control.

Irrational Rationality

A concept that refers to situations or behaviors where actions that appear to be rational (in terms of logic, efficiency, or goal achievement) are actually irrational in a broader sense, because they lead to negative outcomes, contradict human values, or ignore long-term consequences.

Ex: Corporate Layoffs: A company might decide to lay off a significant portion of its workforce in order to increase short-term profits. On the surface, this seems like a rational decision (cutting costs and boosting efficiency), but it leads to long-term harm—employees lose their jobs, morale drops, and public trust in the company deteriorates. The rational pursuit of profits leads to irrational outcomes when considering human welfare and the long-term health of the organization.

Democratic Unfreedom*

refers to the paradox where individuals live in a democratic society that grants political rights, such as voting, free speech, and freedom of assembly, but still experience forms of unfreedom. In this context, unfreedom doesn’t necessarily mean literal oppression or dictatorship but involves limitations on true freedom within a democracy due to factors such as economic inequality, social pressures, or institutional structures that restrict people's actual autonomy and choices.

In simpler terms, it's when people have the formal rights associated with democracy but don't have the real power to make meaningful decisions in their lives due to social, economic, or political constraints. While they can vote or speak freely, other forces in society—such as economic systems, corporate influence, or social expectations—limit their ability to act or live freely.

Ex: Economic Unfreedom in Democracy: In a country with a democratic political system, individuals may have the right to vote and express their opinions, but if they live in poverty or are subject to corporate exploitation (e.g., working long hours in poor conditions), they may not have the true freedom to live the life they want or make meaningful choices. Their economic situation limits their autonomy, making them unfree despite the formal democratic rights they possess.

‘The Means Have Become the Ends’

A concept that describes a situation where the tools, methods, or processes used to achieve a goal become more important than the actual goal itself. In other words, the focus shifts from achieving the intended outcome to simply continuing or preserving the methods that were originally designed to bring about that outcome.

Ex: Bureaucracy: In large bureaucratic systems, the procedures or rules used to manage a process can sometimes become so complex and rigid that the organization starts to focus more on following the rules than on achieving the original goals of the organization. For instance, a government agency meant to help the poor might become so obsessed with the paperwork and processes required to distribute aid that it loses sight of the ultimate goal: alleviating poverty.

Contrasts ‘positive’ with ‘negative’ thinking

Positive Thinking (according to Marcuse) means accepting things as they are, adapting to the current system, and focusing on minor improvements or personal happiness. Marcuse sees this as harmful because it can keep people from questioning or challenging unfair social structures, like inequality and exploitation. It's a way of thinking that supports the status quo and prevents change.

Negative Thinking (for Marcuse) is a critical approach that questions and rejects the current system, seeing it as unjust or oppressive. It’s about thinking critically to bring about change, instead of just accepting things as they are. Negative thinking looks for ways to challenge and transform society for the better.

Ex: Positive thinking keeps the worker passive and accepting of the system.

Negative thinking challenges the system and seeks to change it for the better.

Week 8

Foucault

‘Biopower’/Biopolitics’

Is the power or control that governments, institutions, or other systems exercise over individuals' bodies and populations.

Ex: A healthcare system that mandates vaccinations, regulates diet, or monitors public health statistics is an example of biopower. It controls individual health for the greater good of society.

Governments that regulate birth rates, immigration, or death rates (like policies around population control or national health statistics) are engaging in biopolitics.

Nationalism

‘Make Live, Let Die’

Captures the dual role of power in modern societies: governments and institutions facilitate life for some populations (through healthcare, education, etc.) while letting others die or suffer through neglect, inequality, or outright violence. It’s a way of showing how biopower controls life by deciding who is worthy of living well and who is neglected or left to die.

Ex: Make Live: A government invests in public healthcare and social welfare, ensuring that citizens have access to necessary medical care, food, and housing.

Let Die: At the same time, the same government might allow social inequalities, such as lack of access to healthcare for marginalized communities, high rates of poverty, or inadequate responses to health crises like epidemics, leading to higher death rates among these populations.

Neutral Professional Expertise

Refers to the idea that professionals—such as doctors, engineers, lawyers, or economists—are expected to apply their knowledge, skills, and judgment in an impartial and objective manner, without being influenced by personal biases, political views, or external pressures. It suggests that experts should offer their services based on facts, evidence, and technical proficiency, rather than being swayed by emotional, ideological, or interest-based factors.

Ex: Medical Experts: A doctor diagnosing a disease should base their treatment plan on medical research, clinical evidence, and their professional training, rather than being influenced by personal opinions or external pressures (such as financial incentives from pharmaceutical companies). This ensures that the patient receives the best possible care based on facts and evidence.

Traditional Political Power/Sovereignty

Refers to the concept of supreme authority and control exercised by a state or ruler over a territory and its population. This type of sovereignty is often linked to the idea of a centralized authority that holds absolute power within its borders, without being subject to external control or interference.

Ex: Monarchy: In traditional monarchies, the king or queen has absolute sovereignty over the land and its people. The monarch’s power is typically inherited, and they make all the decisions for the country, sometimes with the help of advisors or councils, but without being subject to other states or powers.

Absolute Sovereignty: Historically, in the 17th century, rulers like Louis XIV of France proclaimed themselves as having absolute power, where they could govern without checks or balances from other institutions, often citing the idea of “Divine Right of Kings,” which claimed that their authority came directly from God.

‘Make Die, Let Live’

Is a concept that can be seen as the opposite of "Make Live, Let Die", which was introduced by Michel Foucault in his discussions of biopower and biopolitics. While "Make Live, Let Die" focuses on regulating and nurturing life, "Make Die, Let Live" refers to the opposite mechanism of power, where the focus is on allowing death or suffering to occur in certain populations or contexts, while letting life continue for others.

In a healthcare system, if a government chooses not to provide adequate healthcare to its poorer citizens or marginalized groups, allowing them to experience preventable deaths or health problems, this could be seen as "Make Die, Let Live." The government may not directly cause death, but its inaction or policies allow death and suffering to persist in these groups, while the wealthier, healthier population continues to live relatively well.

Similarly, in a society with extreme inequality, where certain groups are systematically excluded from resources like education, employment, and healthcare, leading to higher death rates among the disadvantaged, it could be seen as a case of "Make Die, Let Live." The system lets these people die by ignoring their needs while others are allowed to thrive.

Classification/Categorization Schema

Refers to a system or framework used to organize or group things, ideas, or concepts based on their shared characteristics or properties. It's a way of dividing complex information into categories to make it easier to understand, analyze

Ex: Biological Classification: The Linnaean System of classifying living organisms is a clear example of a categorization schema. It organizes living things into categories like Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species based on shared biological traits.

Library Dewey Decimal System: Libraries use a classification schema to organize books into categories based on subject matter. Books about history might be categorized under one number (e.g., 900), while books about science might be under another number (e.g., 500).

‘Society Must Be Defended’

Is Foucault’s idea that states use the concept of defending society (from external and internal threats) to justify the exercise of power and control over people's lives. He looks at how states use war and fear of war to shape and control society, often excluding certain groups and protecting others, all while maintaining a system of power that is justified by the idea of defense.

Ex: In modern times, governments often justify surveillance programs, policing, or military interventions as a means of defending citizens against terrorism or crime. However, Foucault might argue that these defenses also serve to maintain and expand the government's control over the population, even at the expense of certain freedoms or rights.

Week 9

Marx Pt 2

Realm of Necessity

Is a concept often associated with the work of Karl Marx, particularly in his ideas about the structure of society and the conditions of human labor.

Ex: In a capitalist society, the working class is often trapped in the Realm of Necessity, where their time is spent performing labor to earn wages, which are used to meet basic needs like housing, food, and healthcare. They may have little time for personal growth, leisure, or other forms of freedom because most of their life is consumed by the need to survive.

Realm of Freedom

Is a concept often associated with Karl Marx and his vision of human development and society. It represents the space where individuals can pursue their desires, creative activities, and self-actualization without being constrained by the need to simply survive or meet basic material needs.

Ex: In an idealized communist society, where resources are distributed equitably and labor is organized for the collective benefit of all, individuals would have the freedom to pursue art, science, or other forms of self-expression without the pressure of having to work merely to survive. People would have more free time to engage in activities like education, leisure, or creating new innovations, enhancing both personal fulfillment and social well-being.

‘Realms’ in Opposition to One Another?

Often presented in opposition to each other in Karl Marx's theory of society. These two realms represent different stages or conditions of human life and development, where people experience their relationship to work, labor, and freedom differently depending on which realm they are in.

Ex: In a capitalist system, a worker may spend long hours in a factory just to earn money for their basic needs, with little opportunity to do what they truly enjoy (e.g., art, study, or travel). This is the Realm of Necessity.

In an idealized socialist or communist society, where resources are shared equitably and work is not driven by survival, that same person would have more time and freedom to pursue their personal interests and creativity. This would be the Realm of Freedom.

Ideology

Refers to a system of ideas, beliefs, or values that forms the basis of a social, political, or economic theory or system. It is a way of thinking that helps shape and influence how people understand the world, make decisions, and act. Ideologies can guide both individual and collective behavior and help organize society by providing a framework for interpreting issues such as power, justice, equality, and rights.

Ex: Capitalism: A political and economic ideology that emphasizes private ownership of the means of production, competition, and the goal of generating profits. Capitalists believe that economic decisions should be driven by individuals and markets, with minimal government interference.

Socialism: An ideology advocating for collective or government ownership of the means of production, with the goal of achieving economic equality and ensuring that resources are distributed more equally across society.

Week 10

Brown

Nihilism

Is a philosophical belief that suggests life has no inherent meaning, purpose, or value. It argues that traditional beliefs in religion, morality, or meaning are baseless and that there are no objective truths or standards that govern human existence.

Ex: A nihilist might argue that morality is not universal—what we consider "good" or "bad" is just something created by societies, not based on any absolute truth. If a person believed in nihilism, they might feel that nothing really matters in the grand scheme of the universe.

Fatalism

The belief that events in life are predetermined or inevitable, and that individuals have little to no control over them. According to fatalism, whatever happens in the future is fated or bound to happen, regardless of human actions or decisions.

Ex: If someone believes in fatalism, they might think that no matter how hard they try in life, certain things will happen, like getting sick or facing certain challenges, because it is part of their fate. Even if they take care of their health, they might feel that their illness is something meant to happen and out of their control.

Ressentiment

Is a concept introduced by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. It refers to a psychological state of resentment, bitterness, or envy that arises when someone feels powerless or oppressed, and cannot directly express or act on their negative feelings. Instead of confronting the source of their frustration, they redirect these feelings inward or towards others who are seen as weaker or less deserving.

Ex: A person in a workplace where they feel undervalued and ignored might develop ressentiment toward their bosses or colleagues. Since they can't directly confront the power dynamics, they may start to feel resentful toward successful or more powerful coworkers and may even begin to undermine them indirectly by spreading gossip or mocking their achievements. In doing so, they feel better about their own situation, even though they are not actually changing their circumstances.