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Phloem
The vascular tissue responsible for the transport of nutrients and carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis.
Pith
Central part of the stem, involved in storing nutrients and water.
Xylem
The vascular tissue responsible for the transport of water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant.
Dermal cells
Cells that form the outer protective layer of the plant.
Auxins
Plant hormones that promote root formation and control other growth processes.
Cytokinins
Plant hormones that promote shoot formation.
Cork Cambium
A tissue that produces cork cells, forming part of the bark of a plant.
Apical meristem
A region at the tip of a plant shoot or root that contains actively dividing cells and is responsible for primary growth.
Secondary growth
The increase in thickness (girth) of stems and roots in woody plants, involving cell division in the vascular cambium.
Heartwood
The innermost, oldest wood of a tree that is no longer involved in transport of water and nutrients.
Sapwood
The younger, outer layer of wood that is involved in the transport of water and nutrients.
Stomata
Small openings on the surfaces of leaves that allow for gas exchange.
Vascular cambium
A layer of tissue between the xylem and phloem that contributes to secondary growth.
Storage roots
Roots that store carbohydrates and nutrients for the plant.
Tendrils
Specialized structures that help plants cling to supports.
Rhizome
A horizontal underground stem that can produce new shoots and roots.
Stolons
Above-ground horizontal stems that can produce new plants at the nodes.
Cortex
The region of the root between the epidermis and the vascular tissue.
Guard cells
Cells that surround stomata and regulate their opening and closing to control gas exchange.
Bundle sheath cells
Cells that surround vascular bundles in plants, often associated with photosynthesis.
Fibers
Long, slender cells in plants that provide structural support.
Embryonic cells
Undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop into different types of plant tissues.
Periderm
A protective tissue that replaces the epidermis in older stems and roots.
Roots, Stems, Leaves
What are the major plant organs?
Roots
The part of the plant that anchors it to the ground, absorbs water and nutrients, and can store carbohydrates.
Stems
The part of the plant that supports leaves and flowers, transports nutrients and water between roots and leaves, and can store nutrients.
Leaves
The part of the plant primarily responsible for photosynthesis, typically consisting of a flattened blade and a petiole that connects to the stem.
They lack the complex structure and vascular tissue
Why are microphylls of nonvascular plants not considered leaves?
Storage, Aerial, Prop, Pneumatophores, Buttress.
What are the different types of roots?
Storage roots
Type of root that stores nutrients and starch Ex: Potatoes
Aerial/Strangler roots
Type of root that helps the plant gather sunlight
Prop roots
Type of root that prevents erosion by anchoring the plant.
Pneumatophores
Type of root that helps the plant get oxygen (lungs of the plant)
Buttress roots
Shallow roots that prevent the plant from falling over
Rhizomes, Tubers, Stolons, Bulbs.
What are the different types of stems?
Rhizomes
Underground stems that store nutrients and can produce new shoots, allowing for vegetative reproduction.
Tubers
The ends of rhizomes that store nutrients.
Stolons
Type of stem that extends above the ground and along the surface Ex: Strawberries
Bulbs
Type of stem that stores nutrients Ex: Onions.
Tendrils, Spines, Storage, Reproductive, Bracts.
What are the different types of leaves?
Tendrils
Modified leaves used for climbing to reach more sunlight
Spines
Leaves that are used for protection ex: cacti
Storage leaves
Leaves that store nutrients as starch Ex: Aloe.
Reproductive leaves
Individual leafs that can grow into a whole new plant.
Bracts
Flower-looking leaves, attract pollinators.
Indeterminate vs. Determinate growth. Apical base polarity. Varying levels of maturity depending on the region of the plant.
What are 3 ways that plant growth differs from animal growth?
It would remain at eye level because Apical-Base Polarity causes growth from the root and the shoot.
If you carved your name into a tree at eye level and returned many years later, what level would the carving be at? Explain.
Procambium → primary vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) and vascular cambium → secondary vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
Protoderm → Epidermis
Ground meristem → Cortex, Pith, and Non-vascular tissues (Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma cells)
What are the three main meristems of the SAM? What do each of them then differentiate to? Do any of these tissues (after differentiation) then make more tissues of their own? What are these “secondary growth” tissues?
Parenchyma cells
Non-vascular cells differentiated from the ground meristem. Metabolic functioning cells.
Collenchyma cells
Non-vascular cells differentiated from the ground meristem. Early structural support to young tissues, alive cells, contain lignin which makes wood hard.
Sclerenchyma cells
Non-vascular cells differentiated from the ground meristem. Structural cells, contain thick, lignified walls, unalive.
Anti-clinal
What kind of cell division does the procambium do?
Mucilage protection and root cap.
Describe two mechanisms that protect the RAM when moving through soil.
The root needs to extend deeper into the soil via ACD. And it needs to continuously regenerate the root cap to protect it as it pushes through the soil via PCD. The shoot apical meristem does not need PCD to continuously regenerate it after damage because it grows into the air.
Why does the root apical meristem have both anti-clinal division (sideways) and peri-clinal division (vertical) in the first layer of cells, while the shoot apical meristem has only anti-clinal division in the first layer?
Anti-clinal division
A type of cell division that occurs in the root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem where cells divide perpendicular to the surface, expanding the root's length.
Periclinal Division
A type of cell division in which cells divide parallel to the surface, contributing to the increase in girth of the root or shoot.
The cell wall becomes more acidic. This signals expansins to cut polysaccharides in the cell well. Water will enter the cell wall due to a high H+ concentration which will allow the cell wall to elongate.
After plant cells experience Auxin, they begin to pump H+ atoms in to their cell wall. What does this lead to? How does water pressure play a role? (need to learn water potential in plants before you can answer this)
Phototrophism
The growth of plant organs in response to the direction of light.
Central stem grows more than the side stems due to a higher Auxin concentration.
What is apical dominance? What hormone is responsible for it? How can apical dominance produce fractals?
It reduces auxin levels so side stems can grow
Why does cutting off the top of a tree cause it to become more shruby?
It releases Auxin which encourages the plant to establish a healthy root system.
Why is it beneficial to prune some shoots when repotting or transplanting a plant?
Xylum, Phloem, Cortex, Pith.
Identify all major tissues of wood.
Procambium, Vascular Cambium, Cork Cambium
Identify all major meristems of wood.
Cork Cells, Cork Cambium, Phloem
What types of cells is bark made out of?
Suberin
What makes cork impermeable to water?
Heartwood is the innermost, oldest part of the wood. Does not transport nutrients and water. Provided support structure and contains resins and tannins, making it darker and more resistant to decay.
Sapwood is the outer living layer of the wood that conducts of water and nutrients. It is lighter and surrounds the heartwood.
What is the difference between heartwood and sapwood?
Represents one year of growth.
Spring Growth: Growth is prioritized. The wood produced during this time is lighter in color and has larger cells.
Summer Growth: Sexual maturation is prioritized. The wood produced is denser and darker in color with smaller cells.
What are the rings within the trunk of the tree (tree rings)? How are they formed/what do they show?
Secondary growth.
Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM)↓
Primary Meristem
Protoderm → Epidermis (primary covering)
Ground Meristem → Cortex (primary tissue)
Procambium → Primary Xylem and Phloem (transport tissues)↓
Secondary Growth Initiation
Vascular cambium develops between the primary xylem and phloem
Cork cambium (phellogen) forms from the pericycle or outer layer of the vascular cambium↓
Formation of Cork Cells (Phellem)
Cork cambium produces cork cells which differentiate to form the outer bark
Cork cells become dead and provide protective functions
Is a cell on the outer bark, also known as the cork, primary or secondary growth? Explain how that cell got here starting from the shoot apical meristem using a flow chart (Shoot apical meristem → ? → ? → ? etc). Include as many intermediate steps as you can
Provide surface area for absorbing sunlight and exchanging gases
What is the primary function of leaves in vascular plants?
Vascular tissue
Which tissue type in plants is responsible for transporting water and minerals?
Increase the surface area for absorbing water and minerals
What is the role of root hairs in plants?
Secondary growth
What type of growth increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants?
Roots
Which plant organ is primarily responsible for anchoring the plant and absorbing water and minerals?
Regions in plants that generate new cells for growth
Meristem
lengthens roots and shoots
Primary growth
The process that increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants
Secondary growth
Vascular cambium → secondary xylem and phloem, Cork cambium → cork.
What are the secondary growth tissues and meristems?
Note 
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