BehSci 110 Full Review

2.1: Describe and demonstrate the qualities that define critical thinking.

• Critical thinking: thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions.

• Steps in critical thinking:

o Examine assumptions

o Appraise sources

o Discern hidden biases

o Evaluate evidence

o Actively assess conclusions

2.2: Describe and demonstrate the qualities that define scientific attitude.

• Curiosity: "Does it work? When tested, is it confirmed?"

• Skepticism: "What do you mean?" "How do you know?"

• Humility: being willing to be surprised and follow new ideas

2.3: Define psychology and explain its components.

• Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

o Behavior: actions, external/observable

o Mental processes: thoughts, internal/not as observable

2.4: Explain the nature-nurture issue from an evolutionary psychology and behavior genetics perspective.

Controversy over the relative contributions of genes and experience on behavior and traits

2.5: Describe psychology's levels of analysis and the biopsychosocial approach.

• Bio: Genetic predispositions, mutations, natural selection, genes respond to the environment

• Psycho: Learned fears & expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processing, perceptual interpretations

• Social: Presence of others, cultural, societal, family expectations & norms, peer & other group influences, compelling models (famous people/media)

2.6: Identify/recognize psychology's current perspectives and sub-fields.

• Perspectives: neuroscience, evolutionary, behavior genetics, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, social-cultural

• Subfields: biological, cognitive, clinical, developmental, social, personality, legal/forensic, counseling, industrial-organizational, cognitive neuroscience

3.1: Identify the three roadblocks to critical thinking.

1. Hindsight Bias - "oh I knew that"

2. Overconfidence -

3. Perceived Order of Random Events

3.2: Explain how theories advance psychological science.

Theories lead to hypotheses which then lead to research and observations which further the science of psychology

3.3: Define terms related to scientific method: theory, hypothesis, operational definition, replication, correlation, and causation.

• Theory - an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations

• Hypothesis - a testable prediction

• Operational Definition - a carefully worded statement of steps in a research study

• Replication - being able to repeat the essence of a research study

• Correlation - a relationship between two or more things

• Causation - one variable impacting another

3.4: Differentiate among descriptive, correlational and experimental designs.

• Descriptive Designs

• Surveys, case studies, naturalistic observat.

• Correlational Designs - measures a relationship between two variables w/o the researcher controlling either of them

• Experimental Designs -

3.5: Identify characteristics of an experiment, including independent/dependent variables and random assignment.

• Independent Variable

• Intentionally changed in experiment

• Dependent Variable

• Outcome measured and affected by indep.

• Random Assignment

• Removes some bias

3.6: Describe data using measures of central tendency and variation.

• Mean - average of data

• Median - middle data point when in order

• Mode - most common value

• Range - difference between largest and smallest value

• Standard Deviation - the average deviation from the mean

• Normal Curve - bell curve

3.7: Explain how researchers know whether an observed difference can be generalized to the population.

The people that were studied have to be representative of the population that they are trying to generalize

4.1: Describe characteristics of an ethical research study with human subjects, including debriefing, informed consent, confidentiality and minimizing harm.

• Ethics in research - moral actions need to be considered when conducting research

• Debriefing - inform subjects of the full study

• Informed Consent - psychologists inform subjects of information that will be kept and recorded

• Confidentiality - data can only be shared if de-identified

• Minimizing Harm - psychologists must minimize harm done to a participant

5.1: Define perspective taking.

• Taking someone else's perspective and trying to think how they think

5.2: Explain what happens at each stage of the SOAR model of perspective taking.

• Self-assessment - examine our own biases

• Objective analysis - apply BehSci facts and theories to objectively broaden our perspectives

• Awareness of another/alternative perspective - willingly consider others' points of view

• Reflect & apply perspective taking

6.1: Explain how biology and experience interact.

Experience can retrain your brain to do certain things that have been lost due to injury, disease, etc

6.2: Identify parts of a neuron and understand their functions (Dendrites, Cell Body, Synapses, Axon, Neurotransmitter, Myelin Sheath, and Terminal Branch).

Provide function of each part of the neuron:

• Dendrites - branching extensions that receive and integrate messages

• Cell body - contains the nucleus, cell's life-support center

• Synapses or synaptic gap- junction between axon tips

• Axon - passes messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands

• Neurotransmitter - chemical messengers that pass the synaptic gap between neurons

• Myelin Sheath - fatty tissue layer that encases some axons, gives vastly greater transmission

• Terminal Branch - at end of axon, forms junctions to other neurons

6.3: Explain the process of neural transmission and how a nerve cell fires in an all-or-none response.

• Process of Neural Transmission - (action potential) electrical impulses travel through a neuron's axon until it reaches a synapse then it crosses the gap and reaches another neurons dendrites

• All or nothing response - must pass the threshold, does not matter by how much.

6.4: Recognize the major functions of the following neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, endorphins, and GABA (reference Table 2.1).

• Acetylcholine (movement) - enables muscle action, learning, and memory

• Serotonin (stabilizes mood) - affects mood, hunger sleep, and arousal

• Dopamine ('feel good', sex, drugs) - influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

• Norepinephrine (arousal) - helps control alertness and arousal

• Epinephrine - fight or flight

• Glutamate ('gas') - major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

• Endorphins (pain and pleasure: 'runner's high') - neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure

• GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) ('brake') - major inhibitory transmitter (EX: Alcohol)

6.5: Understand the main divisions and functions of the Nervous System.

• Nervous System

o Central - body's decision maker (brain and spinal cord)

o Peripheral - sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Autonomic - control the glands and muscles of the internal organs

• Sympathetic - arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

• Parasympathetic - calms the body, conserves energy

Somatic - enables voluntary control of our body's skeletal muscles

6.6: Explain how the endocrine system transmits information and interacts with the nervous system.

• Endocrine System - body's slow chemical communication system, secretes hormones into the bloodstream

• Hormones - chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands

7.1: Identify and describe the structures and functions of the older brain structures.

• Medulla - base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

• Pons - just above medulla, helps coordinate movement and control sleep

• Reticular Formation - nerve network that travels through the brainstem and controls arousal

• Thalamus - brain's sensory control center, directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

• Cerebellum - rear of brainstem; processes sensory input, coordinates output and balance, enables nonverbal learning

7.2: Identify and describe the structures and functions of the limbic system.

• Amygdala - linked to aggression and fear; emotion

• Hypothalamus - directs several maintenance activities and helps govern the endocrine system and is linked to emotion and reward

• 4 Fs: Fight, Flight, Fear, F*ck

• Hippocampus - neural center in limbic system; helps access conscious memories; sleep moves memories from here

• Pituitary gland - master gland of the endocrine system

7.3: Identify and describe the structures and functions of the cerebral cortex.

• Frontal lobes - behind forehead - speaking, muscle movements, and judgements

o Prefrontal cortex - front - planning complex cognitive behavior, decisions,

o Motor cortex - rear - controls voluntary movements

• Parietal lobes - top of head and towards the rear - receives sensory input for touch and body position

o Somatosensory cortex - front - registers body touch and movement sensations

• Occipital Lobes - back of head - visual information

• Temporal Lobes - above the ears - auditory info from opposite ear

• Corpus Callosum - connects the brain's hemispheres, can be cut to make a split-brain

8.1: Define and describe how consciousness is scientifically studied.

• Consciousness - our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

• Focuses our attention when we learn a behavior

• Flit between states of consciousness

• How consciousness is studied - cognitive neuroscience - the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

8.2: Discuss how selective attention directs our perceptions and describe its limitations.

• Selective Attention - the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

• Unconscious track of our mind processes what our selective attention doesn't

• Limitations of Selective Attention

o Inattentional Blindness - failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

o Change Blindness - failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

8.3: Describe dual processing and its behavioral effects.

• Dual Processing - the principle that information is processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks at the same time

• Behavioral Effects of Dual Processing

• Blindsight: blind people can 'see'

• Parallel processing: processing many aspects of a problem at the same time

9.1: Describe how our biological rhythms influence our daily functioning.

• Circadian Rhythm - our biological clock; regular body rhythm

9.2: Identify the stages of sleep and describe the pattern of the sleep cycle.

• Stages of Sleep

o Awake: beta & alpha waves

• Alpha waves: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

• Beta waves: fast brain waves, alert and awake

o NREM-1: hypnagogic sensations (hallucinations, body might jerk)

o NREM-2: sleep spindles: asleep, but can still be awoken easily

o NREM-3: delta waves: large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep; hardest to wake people from

o REM: rapid eye movement, sleep paralysis, paradoxical sleep

• Pattern and Progression of the 90 min sleep cycle

• Deep sleep diminishes and REM increases with each cycle

9.3: Describe functions of sleep.

1. Sleep protects - makes us feel in a safe environment

2. Helps us recuperate - restores the immune system and repairs brain tissue, neurons are repaired

3. Helps restore and rebuilding our fading memories of the day's experiences - consolidates our memories by replaying recent learning

4. Feeds creative thinking - dreams can inspire artistic and scientific achievements

5. Supports growth - during slow wave sleep, pituitary gland releases a growth hormone that is necessary for muscle development

9.4: Describe the effects of sleep loss.

• Social consequences - more conflict in friendships and romantic relationships

• Psychological consequences - sleep loss is likely to lead to depression

• Productivity consequences - less productive

• Health consequences - weakened immune system

• Reaction time consequences - higher reaction time, more car accidents when people are tired

10.1: Discuss how twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects and interactions of nature and nurture, including heritability.

• Heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studies. How much differences among people are due to genes

• How twin & adoption studies help understand nature and nurture - behavior scientists can estimate the heritability of a trait w/ twin and adoption studies

• Twin: provides a natural way to study nature vs. nurture. Even when twins were split at birth, they still lived lives that were very similar. Personality goes with genes

• Adoption: Environment does affect attitude, values, manners, politics, and faith. Adopted children are usually happier

10.2: Describe what psychologists have learned about temperament.

• Temperament: a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

• Genetically influenced

• Very different in siblings and fraternal twins, usually similar in identical twins

• Temperament persists through age: intense preschooler = intense adult

10.3: Understand how epigenetics helps to clarify our understanding of nature and nurture.

• Epigenetics: study of environmental influences on gene expression that occurs without a DNA change; genes can be active or inactive and are self-regulating - DNA can't be turned off, epigenetics can

• Relationship to nature and nurture - environmental factors such as diet, drugs, and stress can affect the epigenetic molecules that regulate gene expression

10.4: Describe plasticity and how it relates to nature and nurture interactions.

• Plasticity in nature vs nurture: plasticity allows us to adapt to our environment (ex: rat brain, string musicians under 12 y/o); neural tissue is ever changing and reorganizing in response to new experiences

11.1: Describe Piaget's stages of cognitive development and how they relate to brain development/pruning.

• Piaget's stages of cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage - (birth to 2 y/o) infants know the world in terms o¬f sensory and motor activities; object permanence

2. Preoperational Stage - (until 6-7 y/o) learns to use language but cannot comprehend mental operations of logic; egocentricism

3. Concrete Operational Stage - (until age 12) gain mental operations and enable them to think logically about concrete events. Can comprehend conservation

4. Formal Operational Stage - (after age 12) begin to think logically about abstract concepts; potential for mature moral reasoning

• Relationship to brain development & pruning

• Each represent a new level in brain development and reasoning power

11.2: Describe how psychologists study attachment differences, and discuss what they have learned.

• Attachment - emotional tie with another person; shown in children when seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress when separated

• Attachment differences

o Secure - in new environment: baby will play when mother is there, but then will be distressed when mom leaves. Usually have sensitive and responsive mothers

o Insecure - in new env: baby will cling to mother, will cry loudly when mother leaves and returns. Usually have insensitive and unresponsive mothers

• How attachment is studied - studies that create uncomfortable environments for the subject

• Lessons learned -

11.3: Describe how childhood neglect or abuse affects children's well-being.

• Neglect will lead to lower IQ, reduced brain development, abnormal stress response, and high rate of ADHD

• Adversity leads to resiliency and well-adjusted adults

• Monkey study proved abuse-breeds-abuse

• Abused children are at increased risk for health problems, psychological disorders, substance abuse, and criminality

11.4: Describe Kohlberg's levels of moral thinking.

• Preconventional Morality - (before 9 y/o) self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

• Conventional Morality - (early adolescence) uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

• Postconventional Morality - actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

12.1: Differentiate between sensation and perception and explain the anatomical pathway from sensation to perception for vision and hearing.

• Sensation - the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

• Perception - process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

• Transduction - conversion of one form of energy into another.

12.2: Distinguish between top-down vs. bottom-up processing.

• Top-Down Processing - constructs perception from this sensory input by drawing on your experience and expectations

• Bottom-Up Processing - analysis that starts at sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info

12.3: Describe where and how physical energy is converted into neural messages for the visual and auditory/vestibular systems.

• Anatomical Pathway for vision

o light waves each part of the eye brain

• Where & how physical energy is converted into neural messages for the visual system

• Transduction with sensory receptors

• Anatomical Pathway for hearing

o Sounds waves each part of the ear brain

• Where & how physical energy is converted into neural messages for the auditory/vestibular system

12.4: Explain how our perceptual sets, contexts, motivations, and emotions influence our perceptions.

• We expect certain results due to past experiences

• Context - what is going on around the thing we are trying to perceive

• Motivation - can bias our interpretations of neutral stimuli

• Emotion - can bias our perceptions

13.1: Identify anatomical structures and functions of each part of the visual and auditory/vestibular systems.

Provide the function of each part of the eye:

• Cornea - bends light to help provide focus

• Iris - controls size of pupil depending on light intensity

• Pupil - small adjustable opening that light passes through

• Lens - focuses light into an image on the retina

• Retina - contains receptor rods and cones and layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

• Fovea - central focal point in the retina, cones clustered around here

• Rods - detect black, white, and gray and are sensitive to movement; peripheral and night vision

• Cones - receptors located near center of retina; daylight/well-lit; detect fine detail and colors

• Bipolar cell - activated by rods and cones chemical reactions; cones are 1:1; rods are in groups to one cell

• Ganglion cell - activated by nearby bipolar cells; axons twine together to form optic nerve

• Optic nerve - carries neural impulses from eye to brain

• Blind spot - point at which optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptor cells; brain fills in the hole

Provide the function of each part of the ear:

• Auditory Canal (outer ear) - act as a funnel for sound

• Ear drum - vibrates when sound waves strike

• Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup (middle ear) - made of the three tiny bones, picks up vibrations and transmits them to the cochlea

• Oval window - cochlea's membrane-covered opening and is vibrated by middle ear; jostles fluid inside cochlea

• Cochlea (inner ear) transduction - snail shaped tube in the inner ear; jostled fluid causes ripples in basilar membrane

• Basilar membrane - lined with hair cells

• Hair cells - bent over by ripples in basilar membrane

• Nerve fibers to auditory nerve - hair cell movements trigger impulses in adjacent nerve cells,

• Auditory nerve - Nerve fiber's converged axons that form this; carries neural message to thalamus and then to auditory cortex

• Semicircular canals (inner ear) - fluid-filled, help you keep balance

• Vestibular Sacs (inner ear) - respond to gravity to provide information about head's orientation and linear acceleration

13.2: Understand how sensory interaction influences our perceptions.

• None of our senses act alone

• Sensory interaction - principle that one sense may influence another

16.1: Identify the key components of classical conditioning (CC) and understand how responses can be acquired, extinguished, and spontaneously recovered through CC.

• Classical Conditioning - a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli. First stimulus elicits a behavior in anticipation of 2nd stimulus

• Draw the before/during/after diagram with each variable:

o Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - (in CC) a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response

o Unconditioned Response (UR) - (in CC) an unlearned naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

o Neutral Stimulus (NS) - (in CC) a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

o Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - (in CC) originally neutral stimulus that after associated with an US, comes to trigger a CR

o Conditioned Response (CR) - (in CC) a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

• Understand the following processes related to CC

o Acquisition - initial stage of CC, when one links a NS and an US so the NS begins to trigger the CR. During operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

o Extinction - diminishing of a CR when a US does not follow a CS

o Spontaneous Recovery - after a pause of testing, the reappearance of a suppressed CR

o Generalization - tendency for stimuli similar to a CS to elicit similar responses

o Discrimination - learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an US

16.2: Identify the key components of Operant Conditioning, including positive and negative reinforcement and punishment.

• Operant Conditioning - type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

• Shaping - training with positive reinforcement when a behavior happens that is an approximation towards the final desired behavior

• Draw the matrix with the 4 types below:

Positive reinforcement Add desirable stimulus Pet a dog when you call it over

Negative reinforcement Remove a bad stimulus Fasten seatbelt to stop beeping

Positive punishment Administer a bad stimulus Spray water on barking dog

Negative punishment Withdraw a rewarding stimulus Take away a teen's driving privileges

16.3: Compare and contrast the main ideas of classical vs. operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Basic idea Learning associations between events we do not control Associations between our behavior and its consequences

Response Involuntary; automatic Voluntary, operates on environment

Acquisition Associating events: NS paired with US to become CS Response w/ a consequence

Extinction CR decreases when CS is presented alone Responding decreases when reinforcement stops

Spontaneous recovery After rest period, reappearance of suppressed CR Reappearance of suppressed response

Generalization Tendency to respond to similar stimuli with CS Responses learned in one situation may occur in other similar situations

17.1: Describe how observational learning occurs.

• Observational Learning - learning by observing others

• - imitating others through modeling

17.2: Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling.

• Prosocial modeling of prosocial behaviors (positive, constructive, helpful behavior) can have prosocial effects. Children will imitate parents; behaviors that are positive for the community and help others

• Antisocial modeling - opposite of prosocial; behaviors that harm others

18.1: Explain the Atkinson & Shiffrin 3-stage model of memory and forgetting.

• Draw the chart with each stage below

o Sensory Memory - immediate brief recoding of sensory info in the memory

Iconic - momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Echoic - momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

o Working/Short-term Memory - short-term memory that adds active processing of incoming sensory information ; context

o Long Term Memory - relative permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

• Include the following processes on your chart

o Encoding - information into brain

o Storage - retain information

o Retrieval - get information back out

o Parallel Processing - processing many parts of a problem at the same time

18.2: Describe how we encode implicit and explicit memories.

• Implicit Memory - retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations

o Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency and of well-learned information

• Explicit Memory - retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

o Effortful Processing - encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

18.3: Describe effortful processing strategies that can help us remember new information.

• Chunking - organizing items into familiar, manageable units, usually automatically

• Mnemonics - memory aids, especially those that use vivid imagery & organizational devices

• Hierarchies - broad concepts divided into concepts and sub-concepts

• Distributed practice - opposite of cramming, studying smaller parts over a longer time period

• Spacing Effect - tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

• Testing Effect - enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

• Rehearsal - repeating information over and over to make it a memory

18.4: Identify the levels of processing, and describe how they affect encoding.

• Deep - ie: encoding based on the meaning of the words; yields the best retention

• Shallow - basic level encoding, ie: based on the structure or appearance of words

19.1: Describe how long-term potentiation affects our memory processing.

• Long-term Potentiation - an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural (physical) basis for learning and memory

• connection between two neurons

• storage of memory

19.2: Describe the different types of long-term memory, including episodic, semantic, procedural, implicit and explicit.

Implicit (Nondeclarative/Automatic)- cerebellum & basal ganglia

o Space, time, frequency

o Motor & cognitive skills

o Classical conditioning

• Explicit (Declarative/Effortful)- Hippocampus & frontal lobes

o Semantic - memory of facts and general info

o Episodic - memory of experienced events

19.3: Distinguish between anterograde versus retrograde amnesia and proactive versus retroactive interference.

• Anterograde amnesia - an inability to form new memories

• Retrograde amnesia - inability to retrieve information from one's past

• Proactive Interference - forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new info

• Retroactive interference - backward acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old info

19.4: Explain how misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction.

• Misinformation - occurs when misleading info corrupts one's memory of an event

• Imagination - repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories

• Source Amnesia - faulty memory of how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

• Impact on memory construction - heavily influences our memories and can trick our minds

20.1: Describe cognition and understand how concepts increase efficiency and guide our thinking.

• Cognition - all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

• How cognition increases efficiency & guides thinking

• - increases efficiency with concepts and prototypes

• Concept - a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

• Prototype - mental image or best example of a category. Matching items to prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting them into categories

20.2: Discuss how heuristics and cognitive biases influence problem solving and decision making.

• Algorithm - a methodical, logical rule/procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrast w/ heuristic

• Heuristic - simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; more error prone than algorithms

• Availability Heuristic - estimating likeliness of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (vividness), we presume such events are common

• Representativeness Heuristic - estimating the likeliness of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore relevant information

• Confirmation Bias - tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

20.3: Explain how our decisions and judgements are affected by overconfidence, belief perseverance, and framing.

• Overconfidence - tendency to be more confident than correct and overestimate accuracy of our beliefs

• Belief Perseverance - clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were from has been discredited

• Framing - the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

3.1/20.4: Identify the three roadblocks to critical thinking.

1. Hindsight Bias

2. Overconfidence

3. Perceived Order of Random Events

20.5: Describe System 1 and System 2 thinking and explain how they can lead to errors.

• System 1 Thinking - fast thinking; automatically, intuitively, involuntary, and effortlessly

• System 2 Thinking - slow thinking; deliberating, solving problems, reasoning, computing, focusing; more prone to thinking fast

21.1: Describe how key theories explain emotional behavior, including James-Lange, Cannon-Bard and the two factor theory.

• Emotion - response of entire organism; involves: 1) bodily arousal; 2) expressive behaviors; 3) conscious experience

• James-Lange Theory - arousal comes before emotion; emotion is our awareness of bodily responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus

• Cannon-Bard theory - simultaneously; emotion-arousing stimulus causes bodily response and emotion at same time

• Two-Factor theory (Schachter-Singer theory) - bodily arousal + cognitive appraisal = emotion

21.2: Explain the connection between emotional arousal and physiological processes.

• Sympathetic - mobilizes our bodies and releases stress hormones. Provides energy

• Parasympathetic - after crisis, calms us back down as stress hormones leave our bloodstream

21.3: Explain how gestures and facial expressions are understood within and across cultures.

• Facial muscles speak a universal language

• May enhance our survival

21.4: Describe how our facial expressions influence our feelings via facial feedback.

• Outward expressions can affect inward expressions

• Facial feedback Effect - facial muscle states can trigger corresponding feelings

22.1: Discuss how our appraisal of an event affects our stress reaction, and identify the three main types of stressors.

• Cognitive/Stress appraisal- how it affects our reactions

• Stress - how we respond to events that we appraise as threatening or challenging

o Threat- distracted/shut down; bad

o Challenge- aroused/focused; good

• Three main types of stressors

1. Catastrophes - unpredictable large-scale events that cause damage to emotional and physical health

2. Significant Life Changes - life transitions

3. Daily Hassles & Social Stress - can add up and take a toll on mental health and well-being

22.2: Describe how we respond and adapt to stress biologically and behaviorally, including the General Adaptation Syndrome.

• Biological responses - trigger outpouring of epinephrine and norepinephrine; sympathetic nervous system arouses us

• Behavioral responses - increased heart rate and respiration

• General Adaptation Syndrome - three phase stress response: 1) alarm reaction; sudden activation 2) resistance; temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high 3) exhaustion; more vulnerable to illnesses

22.3: Explain how cognitive appraisal, perception of control and an optimistic outlook affect health.

• Health Psychology - psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

• Psychoneuroimmunology - branch of HP that studies how thoughts can affect hormones and immune system

• Cognitive/Stress Appraisal (see above with threat vs. challenge)

• External Locus of Control - perception that chance/outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

• Internal Locus of Control - perception that we control our own fate

• Optimism - expect to have more control; cope w/ stress better; healthier

• Pessimism - expecting things to go badly

22.4: Explain emotion and problem-focused coping.

• Problem-focused Coping - seeking to eliminate the source of the stress

• Emotion-focused Coping - attempts to reduce negative emotional responses to stress

23.1: Understand how stress applies to human performance.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law - some stress can increase performance on a task, however, too much stress diminishes performance

• Threat response when situational demands outweigh an individual's resources

• Challenge response when available resources (training, etc.) are appraised as adequate

23.2: Describe how the scientific study of stress impacts the design of training, system, and work environments.

• Kort Model - a scale that pairs different emotions

• Stressful training leads to better performance in stressful situations

24.1: Understand how we explain other people's behavior and our own.

• Explaining other people's behavior

o Fundamental Attribution Error - tendency for observers to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate impact of personal disposition

o attribute one's behavior to:

Dispositional attributions - enduring traits

Situational attributions - a situation

• Explaining our own behavior

o Attitudes and actions - peripheral route persuasion: attention-getting cues to trigger emotion-based snap judgments; central route persuasion: evidence and arguments that trigger careful thinking;

o Cognitive dissonance - theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent

o Foot-in-the-door phenomenon - tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

24.2: Explain how informational and normative social influence affect conformity and obedience.

• Conformity - adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

• Asch's conformity study

o Normative Social Influence - influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

o Informational Social Influence - influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions as reality

24.3: Discuss the power of social influence as revealed through Milgram's obedience experiments.

• Electric chair experiment

• People were willing to administer lethal voltage to others when encouraged to

24.4: Discuss the power of social roles as evidenced in the Stanford Prison Experiment.

• When given social roles that are expected to be followed, people will follow them

24.5: Describe how our actions are influenced by social facilitation, social loafing, and deindividuation.

• Social Facilitation - improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

• Social Loafing - people in a group exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

• Deindividuation - loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situation that foster arousal and anonymity

24.6: Describe how group interaction enables group polarization and groupthink.

• Group Polarization - enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussions within the group

• Groupthink - mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

25.1: Identify examples of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination.

• Prejudice - attitude towards a group and its members; stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings

• Stereotypes - generalized (sometimes accurate, usually over generalized) belief about a group of people

• Discrimination - unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

• Blue-Eyed-Brown-Eyed demonstration - used eye color to demonstrate discrimination based on race

25.2: Describe how explicit and implicit prejudice differ.

• Explicit Prejudice - we are aware of it

• Implicit Prejudice - unthinking response leaving us unaware of how our attitudes influence behavior

o Implicit Associations Test (IAT) - tests for implicit prejudice in people

• Just-world Phenomenon - tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people get what they deserve

• Ingroup - people with whom we share a common identity

• Outgroup - those perceived as different from our group

• Ingroup Bias - tendency to favor our own group

25.3: Define altruism, and describe factors that influence likelihood to help.

• Altruism - unselfish concern for the welfare of others

• Bystander Effect - tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

• Diffusion of Responsibility - sharing responsibility in a group of people

• Factors that increase likelihood to help- the bystander must:

o Notice the incident

o Interpret incident as an emergency

o Assume responsibility

• Other factors- odds of helping are highest when:

o The person appears to need/deserve help

o The person is in some way similar to us

o The person is a woman

o We have observed someone else being helpful

o We are not in a hurry

o We are in a small town or rural area

o We are feeling guilty

o We are focused on others and not preoccupied

o We are in a good mood

26.1: Define the sociological perspective (i.e., sociological imagination)

• Sociological Perspective - understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context

• Sociological Imagination - stresses the social contexts in which people live and examines how those contexts influence people's lives

26.2: Distinguish between the foundational sociological theoretical perspectives: symbolic interactionism, structural functionalism, and conflict theory

• Symbolic Interactionism (micro)- theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as made of symbols that people use to establish meaning and develop their views of the world, and to communicate with others

• Structural Functionalism (macro)- perspective in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium

• Conflict Theory (macro)- framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce resources (Karl Marx)

26.3: Analyze social issues using the sociological theoretical perspectives

Divorce Rate

• SI - urbanization led to redefinition of love, marriage, children, and divorce

• SF - social changes erode the traditional functions of the family, ties weaken, divorce rate increases

• CT - when men are in power, women could have a lot worse than a bad marriage, high divorce rate represents a shift in balance of power between men and women

27.1: Explain how inequity in childhood affects development of children.

-Children develop a sense of constraint

27.2: Contrast concerted cultivation and the accomplishment of natural growth parenting and how they impact the mindset of children.

-Concerted cultivation (middle-class parents) - monitoring schoolwork, enrolling in activities, etc. Reasoning with child

-Natural Growth (working-class/poor) - set limits and love their children, but allow them to grow on their own. Don't have as many organized activities. Directions

30.1: Define psychological disorder

• Psychological Disorder - syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior; interferes with daily life

30.2: Discuss how the medical model and the biopsychosocial approach influence our understanding of psychological disorders.

• Medical Model's approach - concept that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and cured; usually through a hospital

• Biopsychosocial approach - emphasizes that mind and body are inseparable.

o Bio - epigenetics

o Psycho -

o Social - culture

30.3: Describe how and why clinicians classify psychological disorders, and explain why some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels.

• How/why clinicians classify psychological disorders - organizes and creates order; quick way to describe disorders

o DSM-V - APA Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition; widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

• Why some criticize use of diagnostic labels - lead to overmedication; can be unreliable; casts too wide of a net; creates labels

30.4: Identify and describe the symptoms of schizophrenia, PTSD, Major Depressive Disorder, and OCD.

• Schizophrenia - characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression; chief example of a psychotic disorder

• PTSD - disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety numbness, insomnia that lasts for 4 or more weeks after a traumatic experience

• Major Depressive Disorder - when a person experiences (w/o drugs or another medical condition) two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure

• OCD - disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both

31.1: Describe how conditioning, cognition and biology contribute to the above mentioned disorders.

• Schizophrenia - learn to fear certain things through cognition; dopamine over activity, abnormal brain activity and anatomy; fetal-virus infections; some people are more genetically vulnerable

• PTSD - fear responses can become linked with formerly neutral objects and events (conditioning), learn to fear certain things through cognition; biology can change the scale of disorder or ease of getting it

• Major Depressive Disorder - depression runs in families; altered brain structures; nutrition (biology)

• OCD

31.2: Understand factors contributing to suicidal behavior.

• National differences - US, Canada, and Australia rates are nearly double Britain, Italy, and Spain

• Racial differences - in US: Whites and Native Americans rates are double of minorities

• Gender differences - women are more likely to attempt, but men are much likely to be successful; men use more lethal methods

• Age differences and trends - highest is 45-64 y/o and second highest is older than 85

• Other group differences - higher among rich, non-religious, single/widowed/divorced, witnessing trauma; gay, trans, and nonconforming face higher rates too; alcohol abuse leads to increased suicide

• Day of the week and seasonal differences - negative emotions go up midweek, 25% of suicides happen on Wednesday, highest in April and May

32.1: Differentiate between psychotherapy and the biomedical therapies.

• Psychotherapy - treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

• Biomedical therapies - prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology

32.2: State the main premise of therapy based on classical conditioning principles, including exposure therapy, systematic desensitization and aversion therapy.

• Classical conditioning

o Behavior therapies - train people away from unwanted behaviors

o Classical conditioning/counterconditioning - pairing a trigger stimulus with a new response

o Exposure therapies - treat anxieties by exposing people to the things they fear/avoid

o Systematic desensitization - type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-inducing stimuli. Used to treat phobias.

o Aversion therapy - associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior

32.3: State the main premise of therapy based on operant conditioning principles, including behavior modification and token economies.

• Operant conditioning

o Behavior modification - changing behaviors with reinforcers and punishment

o Token economies - procedure in which people earn a token for good behavior and can later exchange the tokens for privileges/treats

32.4: Discuss the goals and techniques of cognitive therapy and of cognitive-behavioral therapy.

• Cognitive Therapy - teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy - combines cognitive therapy with behavior therapy

32.5: Identify the drug categories and drugs used to treat depression, anxiety and schizophrenia.

• Antidepressant - drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD; usually selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

• Antianxiety - drugs used to control anxiety and agitation

• Antipsychotic - used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of sever thought disorders; powerful side-effects

33.1: Describe how psychologists use traits to describe personality.

• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

• Factor analysis - extraversion to introversion and emotional stability to instability