Gender Identity

femininity/masculinity

socially constructed ideas about how to behave as a man or a woman

is gender a biological concept or a social construct according to functionalists

• Wilson - the need to reproduce requires men to be promiscuous

• women need to nurture one child and stay faithful to the father

is gender a biological concept or a social construct according to feminists

• gender identity socially constructed by a patriarchal society

• family and other agencies of socialisation reinforce stereotypical expectations of gender roles

Hey (1997) - power of female peer groups on girls behaviour

• studied friendship groups among teenage girls

• norms of female peer groups are deeply rooted in patriarchy and expectations of how girls should be

Mac and Ghaill (1994) - how boys learn to be men

• policing their own and others sexuality

• gender power based on hyper masculinity – main source identity for the ‘macho lads’

• valued 3 Fs – fighting, football and fucking

how does the curriculum in education reinforce gender stereotypes?

science and maths are seen as masculine, arts and humanities are viewed as feminine

how do peer interactions in education reinforce gender stereotypes

kids might tease each other for not fitting into gender norms

how does the way teachers interact with Students reinforce gender stereotypes

expecting different things from different genders

how does uniform at education reinforce gender stereotypes

girls get shamed for skirts being ‘too short’

how does religion reinforce gender stereotypes?

• many religious texts and teachings often portray traditional gender roles - in some religions, men are seen as the leaders and providers, while women are expected to be nurturing and submissive

• rituals and practices highlight gender roles - there may be specific duties assigned to men and women, like men leading prayers or women taking care of the home

• can sometimes be slow to adapt modern views on gender equality

what is the traditional feminine identity?

passive and submissive role

lack of self-confidence and ambition

learned through socialisation

housewife and mother

McRobbie - ‘bedroom culture’ (feminist)

young girls engage with their identities and social lives through the private space of their bedroom

postmodernism and changes in social attitudes towards femininity - fluidity of gender

challenges rigid categories and binaries

postmodernism and changes in social attitudes towards femininity - empowerment and individualism

the rise of feminism and movements advocating for gender equality have encouraged women to pursue careers, education, and lifestyles that were once deemed unconventional

postmodernism and changes in social attitudes towards femininity - media representation

we’re seeing more complex female characters who defy traditional stereotypes, showcasing strength, independence, and a range of experiences

postmodernism and changes in social attitudes towards femininity - intersectionality

experiences of womanhood are diverse and influenced by race, class, sexuality etc.

feminisation of workplace - breaking stereotypes

more women are entering various professional fields, challenging the stereotype that women should only occupy nurturing or domestic roles (especially when the profession is traditionally dominated by men)

feminisation of workplace - redefining success

women now take leadership roles whereas traditional femininity often emphasised support roles

feminisation of workplace - work-life balance

workplaces are becoming more accommodating to the needs of working women, highlighting the importance of flexibility and shared responsibilities at home

just like a girl (sue sharpe) - challenging stereotypes

showed that girls were no longer content with being seen as just caretakers or homemakers

just like a girl (sue sharpe) - changing aspirations

found that girls’ aspirations were aiming for careers and independence, rather than just marriage and family

just like a girl (sue sharpe) - educational focus

more girls were prioritising their education and career over traditional roles

just like a girl (sue sharpe) - attitudes towards relationships

girls were seeking partnerships based on equality rather than the traditional dynamic where the man was the dominant provider

divorce reform act of 1969 - easier access to divorce

before this act, getting a divorce was super tough and often required proof of wrongdoing, which trapped women in marriages. The reform made it easier for couples to end their marriages, empowering women to leave relationships that didn’t serve them.

divorce reform act of 1969 - changing social norms

showed that people were starting to value personal happiness and fulfilment over sticking to traditional roles

divorce reform act of 1969 - economic independence

rather than relying solely on their husbands, encouraged women to pursue their own careers and lives

divorce reform act of 1969 - redefining family structures

rise in single-parent families and blended families

equal pay act 1970 - promoting economic equality

aimed to eliminate wage disparity based on gender

equal pay act 1970 - empowerment in the workplace

women began to assert their rights in the workplace and demand recognition for their contributions

equal pay act 1970 - changing perspectives of gender roles

challenged the societal norms that dictated women should earn less than men

equal pay act 1970 - encouraging career aspirations

women started to see the potential for fair compensation, more of them pursued careers instead of just focusing on traditional roles within the home

how are female identities changing - rise of the ‘ladette’

• young women who adopt behaviours traditionally associated with “laddish” masculinity

• heavy drinking (often in public settings like pubs or clubs)

• swearing or crude humour

• assertive or aggressive social behaviour

• rejecting traditional expectations of “feminine” modesty or restraint

• adopting problematic aspects of masculinity

• label created by the media to sensationalise and police young women’s behaviour, especially working-class women

how are female identities changing - jackson (2006)

• many girls tried to strike a careful balance between being “successful” and “empowered” while still being seen as appropriately feminine to avoid being labelled as “too masculine” or “ladette”

• pressure to be “effortlessly perfect”

• fear of negative labels - tightly policed by peers and culture

how are female identities changing - denscombe (2001)

• rise of “laddish” behaviour among girls

• gap between male and female behaviour narrowing

• traditional femininity weakening

hegemonic masculinity - Connell (1995)

• dominant

• strength

• authority

• competitiveness

• emotional stoicism

• power privilege

subordinate masculinity - Connell (1995)

• emotional openness

• vulnerability

• non-competitiveness

• fashion and aesthetics

• rejection of heteronormativity

• sensitivity and care

marginalised masculinity - Connell (1995)

• lack of power and privilege

• resistance to traditional norms

• emotional vulnerability

• community and solidarity

• intersectionality

• challenging stereotypes

complicit masculinity - Connell (1995)

• adherence to hegemonic norms

• passive support of dominance

• conformity to gender roles

• avoidance of responsibility

• social capital

• inconsistent allyship

fragile masculinity - Connell (1995)

• defensiveness

• overcompensation

• emotional suppression

• insecurity

• fear of being perceived as weak

• aggression as a defence mechanism

mac an ghaill (1994) - insecurity among WC males

• WC boys feel insecure about education and future employment

• respond with anti-school attitudes and hyper-masculinity

• masculinity becomes a way to cope with failure and uncertainty

Canaan (1996) - WC men in wolverhampton

“what is the most important thing about being a man?”

• employed - (traditional masculinity) toughness, fighting, drinking, sexual success

• unemployed - having a job

‘backlash: the undeclared war against american women’ - Faludi (1993)

• as women began to gain more rights and independence there was a societal pushback that aimed to undermine those advancements

• backlash created a crisis for female identity, as women faced conflicting messages about their roles

‘stiffed - the betrayal of the american man’ - faludi (1999)

• many men felt lost and betrayed by the shifting expectations of masculinity

• traditional roles of breadwinner and protector were being challenged, leading to feelings of inadequacy and confusion

spur posse - a crisis for male identity- faludi

• the spur posse was a ‘suburban clique’ of former and current high school students from lakewood, california

• 20-30 members

• admitted to ‘competing’ for ‘points’ in a long-running game of sexual conquests

• accusations of sexual assault and misconduct against the group was filed by seven girls in 1993

• felt the need to do this in order to prove their masculinity to their peers

the ‘new man’ - giddens (1990s)

• a man who rejects traditional male roles and sexist attitudes, and is more caring, sensitive, and non-aggressive:

• he works, but also helps with housework and childcare

• he is concerned with style and personal grooming

• he has pro-feminist attitudes

• sometimes referred to as a ‘meteeosexual’ male