Y10 Geography End of Year

landscape definition

an area of land with a particular apppearance

can be any scale (big/small) and can be physical, human, or a combination of both

relief definition

the way a landscape changes in height

uplands definition

areas that are high above sea level and often mountainous

lowlands definition

areas not very high above sea level and often flat & rolling

natural/physical elements of landscapes

• mountains

• coastlines

• valleys

• plains

• rivers

• lakes

• soils

• geology

biological elements of landscapes

• vegetation

• marshes

• wildlife

• habitats

• plants

human elements of landscapes

anything made by humans:

• infrastructure

• communications

• industry

• farmlands

• paths

variable elements of landscapes / variables

anything that’s temporary / that changes

• weather

• smells

• sounds

• season

where are uplands found in the UK

north & west of the country

northern ireland, scotland, wales, north england

e.g. lake district, grampian mountains, snowdonia

where are lowlands found in the uk

south and east of the uk

central & southern england

e.g. cotswolds, norfolk, south downs

where are cities normally found

lowland areas, and often on main river courses

e.g. liverpool on the mersey, bristol on the severn estuary

how did the ice age / glaciation affect distinctive landscapes in the uk

areas covered in ice were weathered & eroded to create steep mountain peaks and u-shaped valleys

igneous rock

forms when magma cools & hardens

hard & resistant to erosion

e.g. granite & basalt

sedimentary rock

layers of sediment are compacted together until they become solid rock

two types:

1. limestone & chalk come from shells & skeletons of dead sea creatures, less resistant to erosion (but limestone is harder)

2. clay & shales made from mud & clay minerals, much softer than limestone/chalk

metamorphic rock

formed when other rock is put under pressure & heat, it becomes harder & more compact

e.g. shale becomes slate, slate becomes schist

what rocks are the UK uplands made of

igneous & metamorphic rock

what rocks are the UK lowlands made of

sedimentary rock

human activities in glaciated landscapes

farming in the fertile land created

building settlements in the rolling plains

geomorphic processes definition

the methods involved in changing the shape of the landscape

weathering

the break-down of rock in its place of origin (in situ)

different to erosion as the rock doesn’t move

three types: mechanical, biological, chemical

mechanical weathering

freeze-thaw weathering

1. rainwater collects in cracks in rock

2. water freezes into ice & expands

3. repeated freezing & thawing makes the crack bigger

4. eventually the rock splits apart

chemical weathering

acidic rain - rain dissolves carbon dioxide in the air

limestone & chalk are more easily weathered (limestone can weather to form limestone pavements)

biological weathering

caused by plants & animals

• roots force their way into rocks, splitting them apart

• plants e.g. mosses grow on the surface of rock, making it crumble

• animals burrow into softer rocks & can trample with feet

erosion

water breaks down rock & sediment from rivers and coasts

hydraulic action, attrition, abrasion, solution

erosion: hydraulic action

waves crash against the coast, forcing air into cracks and breaking up rock

erosion: attrition

pebbles are picked up by waves and bash into each other, wearing down into smaller, rounder pieces

erosion: abrasion

waves pick up rocks and smash them against the coast, wearing it away

erosion: solution

some types of rock like limestone slowly dissolve in the water

transportation

the movement of material by water

• traction (boulders)

• saltation (pebbles)

• suspension (sand)

• solution (dissolved particles)

transportation: traction

boulders & large stones are dragged along the river/sea bed

transportation: saltation

pebbles and small stones are picked up and dropped further along

transportation: suspension

tiny particles of sand / silt are carried by the water

transportation: solution

some rocks dissolve and are carried by the water, invisible to the naked eye

deposition

the dropping of material on land when the water no longer has enough energy to carry it

mass movement

erosion and weathering weaken rock, leading to surface material moving downhill

caused by gravity

sliding, slumping, rock falls

mass movement: sliding

sudden movement of large volumes of rock/soil along a zone of saturated soil

mass movement: slumping

rapid mass movement of permeable rock & soil (e.g. clay) which has become heavily saturated, lying on top of impermeable material

mass movement: rock falls

free-fall movement of rock fragments due to gravity

often increased by mechanical weathering

coast definition

a narrow zone where the land & sea overlap and directly interact

its development is affected by the interaction of physical (marine, terrestrial, and atmospheric) and human processes

beach defintion

the main feature of deposition found at the coast

material has built up between high & low mark

beach materials can be sand & shingle or others

material can be brought from the swash of waves, landslides on cliffs, and rivers transporting sediment to estuaries

swash of waves

water washed up the beach

backwash of waves

water that runs back down the beach

destructive waves

waves that erode beaches

• high wave in proportion to length

• tall breaker - breaks downwards with great force

• strong backwash = erosion

• weak swash

constructive waves

waves that create beaches

• low wave in proportion to length

• strong swash = deposition

• weak backwash = material isn’t taken away

headland definition

a hard piece of rock that sticks out into the sea

bay definition

an area of coastline which has receded backwards, usually with a beach in it

concordant coastlines

has the same type of rock along its length. creates fewer bays & headlands as there is no differential erosion

discordant coastlines

bands of different rock type run perpendicular to the coast

differing erosion speeds between softer & harder rock = formation of headlands & bays

formation of cracks, caves, arches, stacks & stumps

1. crack in headland is opened by hydraulic action & abrasion

2. crack grows into a cave

3. cave is eroded & becomes bigger until the back is broken through to form an arch

4. arch is eroded until the unsupported top collapses, forming a stack

5. stack is eroded around the base & falls, forming a stump

longshore drift

the movement of beach material by the sea along the coast. the direction is determined by the direction of prevailing wind

in the UK most wind comes from the south-west so beach material moves from the west to the east

spits

an extended stretch of beach that projects out to sea & is joined to the mainland on one end

usually found at the mouth of a river

formed by longshore drift

it can grow to develop a hook if the wind direction changes further out

waves can’t get past it, forming a sheltered area behind where silt is deposited - salt marshes

purpose of costal management strategies / costal defences

to protect the coastline and the people & buildings behind it from erosion & flooding

hard engineering (coasts)

using artificial, man-made structures to stop the waves

e.g. sea walls, groins, rock armour

more expensive but more effective

used to protect high-value land

soft engineering (coasts)

smaller, more natural structures to reduce the energy in the waves to protect the beach in a more natural way

e.g. sand nourishing, offshore reefs, managed retreat

less expensive but less effective

costal defences: sea walls

hard engineering

supported walls of concrete placed at the foot of cliffs / at the top of the beach to prevent erosion

good at protecting valuable land, long lifespan, creates a promenade on top but expensive (£5k per m), ugly, destroy nature

costal defences: groynes

hard engineering

wooden fences running at right angles to the beach going out to sea, interrupt longshore drift & trap sediment as well as absorbing wave energy to reduce erosion

make a larger beach, keeps access to the sea, doesn’t destroy much of the beach but expensive (£10k each), can starve beaches downstream of sediment = erosion there

costal defences: rock armour / rip-rap

hard engineering

large boulders of rock at the base of a cliff / in front of sea walls to help the wave break & absorb its energy = less erosion

relatively cheap (£300 per m), easy to maintain, can look more natural but must fit with geology of the coast to look natural, can be hard to transport, can make accessing the beach harder

costal defences: offshore reefs

soft engineering

sandbanks built parallel to the coast out to sea, force waves to break before the beach = less wave energy & erosion

good at reducing wave energy, don’t spoil the beach, don’t effect access of beach but are very expensive (£1.3 mil each), hard to maintain, harm marine ecosystems/habitats

costal defences: beach nourishment

soft engineering

adding additional sand/shingle to the beach to make it higher & wider

relatively cheap (£3k per km), looks natural, fuller beach = more tourists but needs constant replacement because is eroded, doesn’t stop waves

costal defences: managed retreat

soft engineering

controlled flooding of low-lying costal areas to take the risk of damage away from higher-value areas

cheap compared to other defences, creates salt marshes = wildlife habitats but land is lost, landowners have to be compensated = £5-10k per hectare)

upper course of rivers

contain waterfalls, rapids, v-shaped valleys, steep relief

source is found in the mountains, starting off as a tiny trickle but tributaries increase the size

side profile is a V shape because of vertical erosion as the river erodes downwards to reach the sea

middle course of rivers

contain meanders, oxbow lakes, flatter land, floodplains, rural areas & farmland

both erosion & deposition take place

side profile is less steep and is now a U-shaped valley

lower course of rivers

contain a river mouth/estuary, very wide river, industry on banks, marshy/flat land, floodplains

deposition and lateral erosion because the river has now reached the sea so no longer needs to do vertical erosion

waterfalls

more resistant rock lies on top of less resistant rock. water erodes less resistant rock, forming an undercut and plunge pool. more resistant rock on top doesn’t erode, forming an overhang

eventually unsupported overhang collapses into the plunge pool

process is repeated and waterfall retreats upstream to form a gorge

v-shaped valleys

river vertically erodes, and the steep sides of the bank weaken and eventually fall into the river channel creating the v shape

interlocking spurs

ridges of rock extending alternately, creating a zip-like formation. typically have a stream/river running between them

formed because river winds and bends to avoid the most resistant rock as it vertically erodes, meaning that non-resistant rock erode more quickly, creating an uneven appearance

meanders

bends in a river

formed because of naturally uneven land meaning that the water naturally curves

waver moves fastest on the outside of the bend and slowest on the inside. where it moves fast on the outside, it erodes, creating a river cliff, and where it moves slowest on the inside, it deposits sediment, creating a slip-off slope. this means that smaller bends become much larger over time

oxbow lakes

still, curved bodies of water near a river

formed through meanders changing chape over time so that the bends end up joining. water takes shortest & easiest route, cutting off the bend, which becomes an oxbow lake

floodplains

the areas of land on either side of a river that are covered in water when the river floods

very fertile because of the minerals deposited there when the river floods. alluvium (fine sediment & minerals) is deposited there, creating uniquely fertile soil

often use for farming because of fertility

levees

extended banks of deposited material on the sides of rivers

formed when the river floods and deposits sediment, largest closest to the river. this means that the sediment builds up after many floods, forming levees

flooding definnition

when a river overflows its banks onto the surrounding land

discharge

the amount of water in a river

drainage basin

the area of land surrounding a river

surface run-off

water that runs over the surface of the ground towards a river

infiltration

when rainfall moves down into the ground

jurrasic coast depositional landform: chesil beach

18 miles long, from west bay to the isle of portland

can be up to 15m high and 200m wide

pebbles graded in size - biggest near portland, smallest at bridgeport - and made of flint & chert from cretaceous & jurrasic periods

jurrasic coast depositional landform: mudeford spit

winds travel south → south-west so lots of longshore drift

beach recharge used because beaches further up don’t erode so no sediment

formed from boscombe sands - compressed & soft rocklike sand

climate of jurassic coast + geomorphic processes

temp: warm dry summers (21°C) and mild wet winters (min 3°C), no freeze-thaw weathering, lots of salt weathering because evaporation of sea = salt crystals

wind: south-west winds bring storms from the Atlantic, winds bring high energy destructive waves causing erosion which cause unstable cliffs meaning mass movement

rainfall: low rainfall but can be heavy during storms, soils saturate causing slumping in winter, chemical weathering of chalk cliffs

geology of jurrasic coast + geomorphic processes

coast is made up of bands of more & less resistant rock so it has both concordant & discordant coastlines so a wide range of landforms

softer rock erodes quickly (hydraulic action & abrasion) but harder rock erodes more slowly, creating headlands & bays

rock is vulnerable to solution (seawater reacts to rock, dissolving it)

human activities at Jurassic coast + geomorphic processes

quarrying: limestone quarries on the isle of portland, exposing large areas of rock, making them vulnerable to chemical erosion

tourism: major tourist attraction, tourists erode costal footpaths & trample vegetation, exposing underlying soil & rock to weathering & erosion

coastal management: costal defences e.g. groynes change the natural landscape, alter costal processes, cause conflict between users of the coast, and alter geomorphic processes in other areas

headlands & bays in jurrasic coast

the area around swanage is made up of bands of harder rock (chalk & limestone) and softer rock (clay and sands)

this has formed studland and swanage bays, as well as durston head and ballard point

old harry rocks in jurrasic coast

2 miles north-east of swanage & 1 mile east of studland, on the eastern edge of the isle of purbeck

all known as old harry rocks, but ‘old harry’ is the furthest stack out to sea

until 1896 there was a second stack called old harry’s wide but erosion caused it to fall & become a stump

impact of climate change on jurrasic coast

warming temps = higher sea levels as ice sheets melt & water expands. sea level around the UK is expected to rise by 600mm by 2100

warmer atmosphere = more likely storms, creating larger & more powerful waves, increasing erosion

more intense rainfall = greater weathering of cliffs & more mass movement (more rock falls & landslides)

hold the line shoreline management plan in jurrasic coast

based around swanage & aims to maintain, upgrade, and/or replace the costal defences in their current position where funding permits

aims - to progect swanage from erosion, imrpove the amenity for residents & visistors

plan - 19 timber groynes along sand to replace 75 year old ones, replenish beach with 160k tons of sand

sea walls in jurrasic coast

put in place in south swanage bay in late 1800s

extension added in late 1920s

beach recharge in jurrasic coast

in 2005, 90k m³ of sand was deposited, and now it will need to be recharged with around 40k m³ every 20 years

groynes in jurrasic coast

some put in place in south of swanage bay in late 1800s, and more added in 1920s

but they starved beaches further north of sediment so the scheme was extended in 1960s

they were replaced in 2005 with 19 new ones

biome definition

a large scale ecosystem, e.g. desert, rainforest, tundra

ecosystem definition

a community of plants & animals that live together and interact in an environment. the largest ones are called biomes

made of abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors

main biomes & their distribution

characteristics of tropical rainforests

location: low latitudes withing the tropics (around 25 degrees north & south of the equator), in south america, asia & africa

climate: lots of rainfall (2000mm annually), high temps (26-28 degrees), convectional rainfall

characteristics: ideal conditions for plant growth, high levels of biodiversity, distinct layers of vegitation

characteristics of mediterranean biome

location: around 40-45 degrees north of the equator, southern europe and north africa

climate: hot dry summers & mild wet winters, temps between 20-25 degrees in summer & 10 degrees in winter, average 800mm rainfall

characteristics: dense scrubland, herbs e.g. lavender & rosemary, citrus & olive trees

characteristics of deciduous forest

location: approx 50 degrees north of equator, europe and north america

climate: wet mild winters & warm drier summers, average temp around 10 degrees, no extreme temps

characteristics: deciduous trees (loose their leaves in winter) e.g. oak, beech, ash; wide range of animals & plants e.g. deer, rabbits, squirrels, bears

characteristics of savanna grasslands

location: 15-30 degrees north & south of equator in south america, central africa and australia

climate: distinct wet & dry seasons, temps 15-35 degrees, 800-900mm annual rainfall

characteristics: dominated by grasses, baobab & acacia trees, animals like giraffes, lions, zebras, elephants

characteristics of deserts

location: 20-30 degrees north & south of equator in africa, australia, south & north america

climate: hot daytime temps up to 50 degrees but average 25 degrees, night temps below 0, low rainfall below 250mm

characteristics: low diversity, plants e.g. yucca & cacti, animals e.g. spiders, scorpions, camels

characteristics of polar/tundra biome

location: above 60 degrees north & south of equator in the arctic, antarctic, northern Canada, siberia

climate: cold year-round, brief cool summers in tundra areas, below 0 degrees for 6-10 months, low rainfall below 250mm

characteristics: low biodiversity, short growing season, plants e.g. small grasses, lichens, mosses, animals e.g. arctic foxes, polar bears, penguins, caribou

distribution of tropical rainforests

• near the equator

• central america, central africa, southeast asia

• cover large areas

• linear pattern

• none in europe

• e.g. congo basin

climate of tropical rainforests

hot all year round: 25-30 degrees

because its at the equator, the sun is directly overhead at midday and it heats the ground strongly causing moist air to rise, leading to heavy rain - this means tropical rainforest are hot and wet all year round

high humidity

no seasons

nutrient cycle of tropical rainforests

rapid nutrient cycling

litter: forest floor is hot & damp meaning dead leaves decompose quickly (within 3-4 months) so not a lot of litter

soil: because organic material decays and is recycled so quickly, few nutrients every reach the soil, so small nutrient store in soil. because of this trees have their roots close to / above the ground so they can take any available nutrients

biomass: greatest store of nutrients is the biomass - living plants & animals

soil profile of tropical rainforest

soils are called latosols

soils are deep but not rich and lack minerals (because of lots of plants needing nutrients)

soil fertility is only sustained by the rapid replacement of nutrients from dead leaves

humus (decomposed layer) is very thin

minerals (e.g. calcium & magnesium) are leached quickly through the soil due to lots of rainwater

top layers of soil are red because of high concentration of aluminium oxide & iron oxide

rapid chemical weathering throughout soil, particularly of the parent rock (original rock on which the soil has formed)