chp 13

conjunctive rule

conjunctive rule

applies and operator —> has to satisfy all conditions. ex) child safety seat must be rear facing until child is 1 year old and weighs 10 kg

disjunctive rule

applies OR operator —> choose one. ex) you can adopt larry the cat or bob the cat

conditional rule

applies IF, THEN operator. ex) if a man is a bachelor THEN he is unmarried

biconditional rule

applies conditional rule in both directions, IF ( IF AND ONLY IF OR XNOR) an itiem is a member of the category and has both attributes or neither attribute. ex)

conditional reasoning

states relation between conditions antecedent (p) and a consequent (q) ( IF P,THEN Q). eg) if they play my favorite song at the bar I will dance & sing

propositional calculus

system for categorizing conditional reasoning statements

affirming the antecedent

produces a valid conclusion eg) they played my favorite song consequent = true. easiest to evaluate

affirming the consequest

“i am dancing & singing) —> produces invalid conclusion (you dont know why i am dancing & singing) antecedent = intermediate. next easiest to evaluate

denying the antecedent

produces invalid conclusion (consequent = intermediate) eg) they did not play my song. did you don’t know if i’m dancing or not. most difficult to evaluate

normative model of decision-making

tells us how a decision should be made, given unlimited resources, (eg. memory time information) to devote to the decision.

economic human (homo economicus)

concept in neoclassical economics views humans as rational decision makers

descriptive model

how people really reach decisions, given limited Memorie abilities, time information etc. (humans do not always choose the best option) —> takes from experimental psychology

prospect theory (kahneman & tversky)

described how potential gains and losses are evaluated using heuristics and biases. tries to explain the decisions that we make. evaluation is made with reference to a neutral reference point (evaluate pros and cons to reference point)

representativeness heuristic

judging liklelihood by how well something matches the prototype (pattern or previous experience) mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes. if someone is described as quiet and introspective and enjoys reading, you might believe this person is more likely to be a librarian than a salesperson, based on the stereotype (or mental prototype) you have of librarians.

small sample fallacy

assuming small samples will be representative of population. If the sample size is not representative of the population, the conclusions drawn may be inaccurate.

base rate fallacy

people ignore or underweight the base rate information (general information or statistics) in favor of individual, specific information.

conjunction fallacy

reasoning based on expectation not probability.

gamblers fallacy

reasoning based on expectation not probability

availability heuristic

judging probability by how easily examples are retrieved (related to memory). caused by familiarity, recency, stimulation heuristic (ability to imagine)

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

initial approximation (anchor) may affect later judgment (adjustment)

hindsight bias

tendency to consistently exaggerate what could have been anticipated in foresight when looking in hindsight - hindsight groups 2/3 x more likely to agree with given diagnosis then foresight group

principles of unconscious thought

• occurs outside of attention

• capacity not limited by working memory

• applies bottom up processing superior at weighting importance of choice attributes

• uses associative thinking

• divergent

illicit contrast

if one thing lacks a certain property any contrasting object must have the property or vise versa

argument by innuendo

directing one to a particular suggestive conclusion by choice of words

fallacy of the continuum

assuming small differences are always unimportant (latte factor)

fallacy of composition

assuming that what is true of the parts is true of the whole

intelligence

an inferred trait, representing the abilities to learn from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, and adapt to changes

Francis Galton

first intelligence test (1822-1911), checked for a fee, perceptual tests. Contributed to the eugenics movement.

Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon (1905/1916)

developed test for slow learners, compare MA (mental age) w/ CA (chronological age). tested on vocabulary, comprehension, and verbal relations. purpose was to identify children who needed help and to provide them with special training.

Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon (1905/1916)

modified test for use in US (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales) 

based on Stern’s (1912) intelligence Quotient: 

IQ = (MA / CA) × 100 

easy to administer and score, hard to compare children of different chronological ages, not for adults.

David Wechsler (1939)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) , Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). more non verbal questions and tests were timed.

psychometric

dependent on number of correct answers

flynn effect

unstandardized intelligence scores have been increasing over time (intelligence creeping up over time) 

▸ 14-point gain from 1932 to 1978 

what causes the flynn effect?

the nature of intelligence has changed from practical to conceptual, due to social change. result of environment not genetics

social multiplier effect

virtuous cycle of skill improvement

factor analysis

determines minimum number of dimensions necessary to explain a pattern of correlations among subtests

Theory of Multiple Intelligences criteria includes ?

isolated by brain damage 

• existence of prodigies, savants 

• identifiable core operations (e.g., music: melody, harmony, rhythm, etc.) 

• distinctive developmental history 

• evolutionary plausibility 

• support from experimental psychology 

• psychometric support 

• encodable in a symbol system

Gardners types of intelligence (multiple)

linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal/intrapersonal, naturalist - possibly existential

garnder’s theory of multiple intelligences —>

descriptive not prescriptive, discovered from real life/simulations not standardized tests. lacks empirical evidence and is based on subjective judgement

Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence (Robert Sternberg, 1985

consists of componential (analytical) intelligence, experiential (creative) intelligence,   Contextual (practical) intelligence

metacomponents

recognizing a problem, selecting a procedure to solve it, checking the results - understanding you need to address something search memories to find steps to solve problem

performance components

planning, implementing the procedure - actually solving the problems and using the steps

knowledge Aquisition components

learning how to solve a problem - how did I learn to do this?

what is more a higher predictor of success, self-discipline or intelligence?

self discipline. Duckworth & Seligman self-discipline was more important than IQ in contributing to final grades

ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator in 1946

first electronic large scale general purpose digital computer