Leadership and Organizational Behavior Test 1

Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6

Organizations

social structures created by individuals to support the collaborative pursuit of specific goals

Organizational behavior (OB)

explaining human behavior in organizations, which includes examining the behavior of individuals, groups, or all the members of an organization as a whole

Technical skills

expertise in a particular task or field

Relational skills

talents for getting along with and motivating people.

Conceptual skills

the capability to understand complex issues and underlying causes and to solve problems with broad implications

Conventional OB

emphasizes material or financial well-being and the interests of a narrow range of stakeholders in the immediate future.

Sustainable OB

emphasizes multiple forms of well-being (i.e., financial, social, ecological, spiritual) and the interests of a broad range of stakeholders in the immediate as well as distant future

Virtue theory

focuses on character and the ways in which people practice and facilitate the practice of virtues in community, thereby facilitating happiness

Ideal types

fundamental models or theoretical extremes

Critical thinking

involves actively questioning and evaluating assumptions and information

Management

the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources towards the achievement of organizational goals

Practical wisdom (prudence)

exercising foresight, reason, and discretion to achieve what is good for the community

Courage

the willingness to take action to do what is good regardless of personal consequences

Self-control

a person’s emotional regulation and ability to overcome impulsive actions and greed

Justice

a sense of “fairness” that ensures that everyone connected with an organization gets his or her due

Scientific management

focuses on analyzing and improving the efficiency of work processes

Human relations

focuses on how the social environment of work influences attitudes and behavior

Hawthorne effect

an improvement in work productivity resulting from people receiving attention from observers

Systems theory

highlights the complex interdependences between individuals, features of organizations, and the broader organizational context

Institutionalization

occurs when organizational practices or rules are accepted and perpetuated without regard to instrumental rationality

Social construction

the idea that what we perceive to be real is influenced by the social environment

Stakeholder

any group within or outside the organization that is directly affected by the organization and has a stake in its performance

Organization-specific responsibility (OSR)

the responsibility of organizations to focus on the organization's owners and their financial interests

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

is the responsibility of organizations to act in ways that protect and improve the welfare of multiple stakeholders

Natural environment

composed of all living and nonliving things that have not been created by human technology or human activity

Externalities

positive or negative effects on others or society not accounted for in the prices of a firm's goods or services

Greenwashing

deliberately using misleading information in order to present a false image of ecological responsibility

Sustainable development

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Globalization

the increased interdependence and integration among people and organizations around the world

Multinational company (MNC)

an organization that receives more than 25 percent of its total sales revenue from outside its home country

Polycentrism

an assumption that members in a host country know the best way to manage an organization in their country

Ethnocentrism

the assumption that members of one's own home country offer the best way to manage in a host country

Egalicentrism

the assumption that people from different cultures working together in a manner characterized by two-way, give-and-take communication fosters deeper mutual understanding, community, and new insights

National culture

the shared values, beliefs, knowledge, and general patterns of behavior that characterize a country's citizens

Hofstede's Five Dimensions of National Culture

1. Individualism

2. Materialism

3. Time Orientation

4. Power Distance

5. Uncertainty Avoidance

Individualism

makes individuality and individual rights paramount and encourages people to act in their own self-interest

Members of these cultures tend to be motivated by opportunities to achieve personal gain and to look out for themselves or immediate family

Materialism

place high value on assertiveness and achievements such as better paying jobs, material possessions, and money

these cultures tend to be motivated by competition for extrinsic rewards—for example, higher salaries, bonuses, and opportunities to be number 1

Time Orientation

short term view vs long term perspective

i. e. living for the present or considering the future

Power Distance

emphasis placed on power differences/deference to authority

Uncertainty Avoidance

emphasis on predictable rules and regulations over ambiguity and risk

Diversity

a state of having or being composed of differing attributes

Social categorization theory

proposes that we use characteristics to categorize others into groups, and this shapes our attitudes and behavior toward others

Stereotypes

general perceptions about a group of people with similar characteristics

Unconscious biases

stereotypes that are triggered automatically without awareness

Abilities

innate capabilities to perform a specific task

Personality

the unique and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals

The Big Five Personality Traits

1. Extraversion

2. Agreeableness

3. Conscientiousness

4. Openness to Experience

5. Emotional Stability

Extraversion

personality trait associated with being sociable, talkative, assertive, and adventurous

Agreeableness

personality trait associated with being good-natured, cooperative, trustful, and not jealous

Conscientiousness

personality trait associated with being achievement oriented, responsible, persevering, and dependable

Openness to Experience

personality trait associated with being intellectual, original, imaginative, and cultured

Emotional Stability

personality trait associated with being calm, placid, poised, and not neurotic

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

work behavior that goes above and beyond normal role or job expectations to help others or benefit the organization

Negative affect

describes a person who is generally angry, anxious, and pessimistic

Positive affect

describes a person who is generally happy, enthused, and optimistic

Myers–Briggs type indicator (MBTI)

a personality inventory based on Carl Jung’s work on psychological types

Core self-evaluation

a broad trait that integrates an individual’s sense of self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, level of emotional stability, and locus of control

Locus of control

a person’s consistent belief about the sources of success and failure

Self-esteem

an individual’s self-evaluation of worth

Self-efficacy

a person’s belief that he or she will be able to complete a task successfully

Generalized self-efficacy

a person’s belief or confidence in his or her capability to cope with and perform in a variety of situations

Beliefs

ideas or opinions we hold to be true

Theory X

managers assume people are inherently lazy, dislike work, will avoid working hard unless forced to do so, and prefer to be directed rather than accepting responsibility

Theory Y

managers assume people are inherently motivated to work and will feel unfulfilled if they do not have the opportunity to work and make a contribution to society

Theory Z

the belief that people like to be members of a group and will work most productively in stable groups

Values

a set of personal tenets that guide a person’s actions in evaluating and adapting to his or her world

terminal values

related to desirable ends (what a person values achieving in life)

instrumental values

desirable means to achieve end states

States

dynamic conditions of a person evident in what he or she thinks, feels, or acts

Ethics

a set of principles or standards that differentiate right from wrong

Moral development

the state or level of a person’s moral reasoning

Moral point of view

a framework of values we use to develop our internally consistent and logically justified principles and standards of right and wrong

Consequentialist theory

considers the consequences of an action in determining what is ethical

Utilitarianism

a moral philosophy that holds that ethical managers strive to produce “the greatest good for the greatest number”

Egoism

a moral philosophy based on what “benefits me the most”

Virtues

good ways of acting that are noble or have value regardless of the end result or consequences

Sustaincentrism

a perspective promoting balance between the human and ecological concerns in organizational endeavors

Ethical climate

describes the informal shared perceptions of what are appropriate practices and procedures

Ethical culture

consists of the formal and informal systems aimed at influencing the ethical behavior of organizational members

Code of ethics

a formal written statement of an organization’s primary values and the ethical rules it expects its members to follow

Bottom-line mentality

an unbalanced pursuit of a single goal or outcome to the neglect of competing goals or priorities

Attitudes

summary evaluations of a particular object or person

ABC framework

framework of attitudes includes affect, behavioral intentions, and cognitions

Job satisfaction

a person’s general attitude toward his or her job or job experiences

Job involvement

the extent to which a person thinks about, is immersed in, and is concerned about his or her job

Commitments

attachments or bonds to people, actions, or organizations

Organizational commitment

an attachment or bond to a particular organization

Perceptions

the subjective interpretations we give to information and messages we receive from sensory inputs

Attributions

people’s explanations of the causes of behaviors or performance

Impression management

an actor’s active attempt to limit or influence the information the perceiver receives

workplace commitment originates from three main sources:

1. Attitudes (affective commitments—I want to)

2. Obligations (normative commitments—I ought to)

3. Limited alternatives (continuance commitments—I have to)

Representativeness

assessing something based on its similarity to a typical (representative) person or experience instead of the unique characteristics of the current situation

Anchoring and adjustment

failing to sufficiently adjust a judgment from an initial impression (an anchor), even in the face of contrary evidence

Halo/horn effects

using one piece of known information—good or bad—to influence general perceptions

Availability

relying on memorable information—dramatic or recent—to make judgments

Selective perception

screening out information that contradicts an existing perception

Fundamental attribution error

attributing the source of another’s behavior or performance to personal factors instead of to the situation

Cognitive dissonance

the uncomfortable mental state we experience if a current perception, belief, or behavior conflicts with a past perception, deeply held belief, or previous behavior

Emotions

affective states that arise in response to information or messages a person receives from specific sensory inputs

Emotional labor

a term given to the display and management of appropriate emotion as part of fulfilling job responsibilities