PSYC Ch. 3

Well-defined problems

have a clear starting and ending point, it is easy to say that a problem has been solved (ex: taking out the garbage)

Ill-defined problems

lack both a clear starting point and ending point. No clear goal to be achieved and methods to achieve goals are unclear. (ex: figuring out how to live a fulfilling life)

Trial and error

involves making random guesses to solve a problem until something works

Algorithm

a logical, systemic approach to solving a problem

Heuristic

mental shortcut used when solving problems and reasoning. These do not guarantee correct solutions.

Means-end analysis

breaking a larger problem up into smaller, more manageable subproblems

Working backwards

envisioning the end goal and thinking of ways to get back to the starting point

Intuition

making decisions based on instinct. Relies solely on heuristics and cannot solve complex problems

Fixation

when we get stuck on a certain problem

Mental set

the unnecessary constraint that is imposed on problem solving due to attempts to solve a problem based on strategies that were previously successful for other problems, even though this strategy may not be useful for the current problem

Functional fixedness

the tendency to consider objects in term so their usual functions

Insight

the “aha” moment when a solution clicks

Incubation

when we gain insight for a problem after not consciously thinking of the problem for a while because our brain continues to subconsciously think of the problem

Decision-making

making a judgement about the desirability, effectiveness, or probability of an outcome. Make faster and easier by heuristics

Availability heuristics

use of concrete, specific examples that readily came to mind to justify a decision. How easily something comes to mind (ex: thinking illegal immigrants are all criminals due to FOX news)

Representative heuristic

when we make decisions on prototypes or a general idea of what we think is normal or expected. How well something matches a mental prototype (ex: thinking a woman with glasses is a librarian even though not many people are employed as librarians compared to sales associates or other jobs)

Conjunction fallacy

when people think the likelihood to two events is more possible than one of the two events occurring on its own (remember probabilities, the union of two events is the probability of each event multiplied together, so this value will always be smaller than any individual event’s probability)

Biases

patterns of deviation from logical thought or judgement that influences every aspect of problem-solving

overconfidence

a type of bias to think your decision is more likely to be correct than it actually should be

Belief perseverance

a type of bias that involves actively rejecting or rationalizing facts contrary to beliefs you actually hold

Confirmation bias

when you seek out information that confirms beliefs you already have and avoid information that might provide evidence to the contrary

Just world fallacy

a type of bias where you believe that people deserves what happens to them

Halo effect

a bias where people rate other who make a positive impression on them more positively that would be expected on their performance of other traits (ex: pretty people get paid more)

Framing effects

cognitive bias in which people make decisions based on how information is presented, such as chance of success or change of failure

General intelligence

defined by Charles Spearman as the ability to score well on mental aptitude tests

IQ tests

(intelligence quotient) standardized tests designed to quantify a person's intelligence. Alfred Binet is the founder of the modern IQ test which compares person's mental age with their chronological age

Stanford-Binet Intelligence test

an adapted version of Binet’s test which replaced the mental age quotient with a normal distribution of IQ scores

G factor

a hypothesized underlying single factor that determines intelligence

Triarchic theory of intelligence

splits intelligence into three types: analytical intelligence, practical intelligence, and creative intelligence. analytical intelligence is what's tested on IQ tests. practical intelligence is the ability to solve real world problems and use common sense. creative intelligence is the ability to solve novel problems and adapt to new situations

Theory of primary mental abilities

instead of 1 G Factor, it proposes that there are seven factors that split intelligence

theory of multiple intelligences

Proposes that instead of 1 g-factor, there are 8 independent factors that determine intelligence. Proposed by Gardner

Crystallized intelligence

The ability to make decisions based on previously learned material. tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

the ability to make decisions when confronted with entirely new material and decline with age

Growth mindset

a view that intelligence is something changeable with effort and perseverance

Fixed mindset

a view intelligence is something that is unchanging and something that a person either has or does not have

Consciousness

the awareness of yourself and at least some of the internal and external stimuli affecting you

Alertness

An awareness of who you are and what is going on around you

Daydreaming

occurs when the mind wanders, and you generally feel more relaxed and less focused than when you are alert

Drowsiness

occurs just before falling asleep and just after waking up

Sleep

a state in which the awareness of the self or the world around you is significantly decreased. Notice that sleep is still technically the state of consciousness

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a test that measure electrical activity in the brain

Beta brain waves

Associated with focused alertness

Alpha brain waves

associated with daydreaming and relaxation

Theta brain waves

associated with drowsiness and light sleep

Delta brain waves

associated with deep sleep and coma

Stages of sleep

N1, N2, N3, and REM

N1 (Stage 1) of sleep

characterized by Alpha and theta waves and sometimes hypnagogic hallucinations

hypnagogic hallucinations

depends on person but can vary from seeing dots of light to extremely Vivid images

Hypnic jerks

Involuntary muscle twitches, such as when you feel like you're falling right before falling asleep

N2 (Stage 2) of sleep

mostly theta waves. characterized by K-complexes and sleep spindles. K-complexes are thought to help with memory consolidation and sleep spindles are important for sensory processing and long-term memory consolidation

N3 (Stage 3) of sleep

deep sleep characterized by delta waves and release of growth hormone

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

a deep sleep where most dreaming occurs and is characterized by Alpha and beta waves, looks similar to when we were awake. important for memory consolidation. The length of REM sleep periods increases throughout the night while other stages shorten

Circadian rhythm

rhythmical behavior that underpins human biology, tied loosely to a 24-hour cycle

Sigmund Freud's theory of Dreams

hypothesized that dreams result from our unconscious thoughts and desires, most of which stem directly from Early Childhood memories and experiences

Manifest content

what is literally happening in dreams

Latent content

the hidden, true significance of the dream content

Carl Jung

also believed that the content of the dreams are related to the dreamer’s unconscious thoughts and desires but instead of early childhood memories, Jung believed that dreams act as messages and can be used to help resolve emotional or religious problems

Activation-synthesis theory

States that dreams are the result of the brain trying to find meaning from meaningless brain activity

threat simulation Theory

states there is an evolutionary advantage of dreaming since the brain can simulate stressful or dangerous interactions

Sleep deprivation

lack of sleep that can cause deficits in attention and working memory

Sleep debt

the result of a lack of continuous sleep that can be paid off by getting good rest

Insomnia

the Chronic inability to fall asleep, difficulty remaining asleep, or perpetually waking up too early

Narcolepsy

Characterized by excessive sleepiness throughout the day and by involuntary falling asleep for brief periods of time

Sleep apnea

A disorder in which a person does not take in enough oxygen while sleep causing him to wake up but not actually realize they have woken up

Obstructive sleep apnea

caused by the soft tissue surrounding the airway constricting the airway during sleep

Central sleep apnea

caused by the instability of the body's feedback mechanisms that control breathing

CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure machine)

used to treat sleep apnea and hypoventilation syndrome, it Supplies pressurized air that holds a person's upper airway open

Hypoventilation syndrome

a sleep disorder that occurs when a person loses the ability to get rid of CO2 in the bloodstream

Sleepwalking and sleep talking

Sleep disorders that occur during the N3 sleep stage and are thought to have a strong genetic component for risk

Hypnosis

induced State of Consciousness that involves focused attention to the exclusion of other stimuli, as well as an enhanced response to suggestion. Hypnosis does not work if a person does not want to be hypnotized

Suggestion (for hypnosis)

having their thoughts, feelings, or behavior guided by another person

Social influence theory of hypnosis

hypnotism does not induce an altered state consciousness, but instead describes people conforming to behavior that is expected of them

Dissociation theory of hypnosis

holds that hypnosis is an alternative Consciousness that should be separated from ”normal” conscious experience

Meditation

another induced State of Consciousness which involves the training of the mind and attention and awareness. with the added effect of creating a clear and stable mental state

Psychoactive drugs

drugs that alter our conscious experience and perception. Four main types: depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, and opioids

Depressants

drugs that depress, or lower the activity of, the central nervous system. Typically bind to GABAA receptors in the central nervous system, which lets in chloride and ions into the affected neurons making them harder to activate

Alcohol

a depressant that is a neurotoxin that causes general impairment of brain function over the short term.

Benzodiazepines

another depressant often prescribed to treat anxiety, seizures, and insomnia

Barbiturates

like benzodiazepines, are prescribed to treat insomnia or reduced anxiety

GABAA receptors

located in the central nervous system, which lets in chloride and ions into the affected neurons making them harder to activate. Have an inhibitory effect

Stimulants

activate the central nervous system, and make people feel more awake and alert. Note that stimulants do not cancel out the effects of depressants as they work on different mechanisms

Caffeine

a stimulant that blocks adenosine, responsible for making us feel drowsy, receptors in the nervous system

Nicotine

a stimulant that works by binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the central nervous system

Cocaine

a strong stimulant that works by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine

Methamphetamine

a stimulant that causes the high level release of dopamine

Hallucinogens

drugs that cause hallucinations, or changes in perception

Entheogens

hallucinogens that have been used in various medicinal and religious traditions for thousands of years

Lysurgic acid diethylamide (LSD)

a hallucinogen that is thought to function by activating serotonin and dopamine receptors in the central nervous system

MDMA

a hallucinogen that works by increasing serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine

Cannabis

a hallucinogen that acts on special receptors, called cannabinoid receptors, that can decrease the activity of adenyl cyclase, calcium channels, and potassium channels

Opioids

a class of drugs that work on opioid receptors in the brain, typically to treat pain

Drug addiction

A biopsychosocial disorder that involves compulsive drug taking and drug seeking behaviors despite serious adverse effects. the faster the route of drug entry the more addictive the drug tends to be

Transdermal

drugs that are taken through the skin

Oral ingestion

a slower route of drug entry since the drug must go through the gastrointestinal tract to be absorbed

Injection

fastest method of drug entry. Most drugs are taken intravenously, meaning that they're shot directly into a vein

Intramuscular

injection where the drug is injected directly into the muscles. while muscles have good access to blood vessels, a much smaller volume of drug can be injected intramuscularly then intravenously

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter that is associated with pleasurable activities. it is produced in the ventral tegmental area

ventral tegmental area

located in the midbrain is associated with motivational salience

Mesolimbic pathway

includes regions where dopamine is sent to from the ventral tegmental area. Regions include the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that is partially responsible for feelings of contentment and satiation. When more dopamine is released less serotonin is released