Anatomy Final

Anatomy

The study of structure and shape of the body and its parts

Physiology

Study of how the body and its parts work or function. (structure determines what functions can occur)

Gross Anatomy

Easily observable; large structures - stomach, small intestine, large intestine.

Microscopic Anatomy

Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye; Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a microscope.

Levels of Structural Organization

* Atoms
* Cells
* Tissues
* Organs
* Organ Systems
* Organisms

Survival Needs

Water, Normal Body Temp, Nutrients, Oxygen Atmospheric pressure

Superior

toward the head or upper part of the body (above)

Other Names for Superior

cranial or cephalic

Inferior

away from the head or lower part of the body (below)

Other Names for Inferior

caudal

Anterior

toward the front of the body (infront of)

Other Names for Anterior

ventral

Posterior

toward the backside of the body (behind)

Other Names for Posterior

dorsal

Medial

toward the midline of the body (inner side)

Lateral

away from the middle of body (outer side)

Intermediate

between a more medial, lateral structure

Proximal

close to the origin of the body/head (attachment points like arms and legs)

Distal

farther from the attachment point (attachment points like arms and legs)

superficial

is towards the surface of the body (skin is most superficial)

deep

more internal/away from the body surface (inside)

Internal Body Cavities

Dorsal and ventral

Dorsal Cavity Subdivisions (posterior; BACK)

Cranial and Spinal

Cranial Cavity

Houses the brain; Protected by the skull

Spinal Cavity

Houses the spinal cord; Protected by the vertebrae

Ventral Cavity Subdivisions (anterior; FRONT)

Thoracic and Abdominopelvic

Thoracic Cavity

**Cavity superior to the diaphragm; Houses heart, lungs, and other organs**; Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and other organs; **Protected by the rib cage**

Abdominopelvic Cavity

**Cavity inferior to the diaphragm**

–Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other organs; Protected only by trunk muscles

–Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum; Protected somewhat by bony pelvis

Abdominopelvic Cavity Subdivisions

Four Quadrants and Nine Regions

Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants

* abdominal and pelvic cavity are divided into four quadrants, anteriorly.
* A line runs from the sternum to the pubis and a second line that crosses horizontally by the navel creating
* the **right upper quadrant**, R U Q, the **left upper quadrant**, L U Q, the **right lower quadrant** R L Q, and the **left lower quadrant**, L L Q.

The Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

The nine regions are created by two midclavicular lines running down vertically, and two horizontal lines, one above the umbilicus and one below the umbilicus.

Right Hypochondriac Region

Right side top region; contains the liver

Epigastric Region

Middle top region; contains the stomach

Left Hypochondriac Region

left side top region; contains the diaphragm

Right Lumbar Region

Right side middle region; contains the large intestine

Umbilical Region

Middle region; Contains small intestine

Left Lumbar Region

left side middle region; contains large intestine

Right Iliac Region (inguinal region)

Right side bottom region; Contains the appendix

Hypogastric Region (pubic region)

bottom middle region; Contains the urinary bladder

Left Iliac Region (inguinal region)

Left side bottom region

Planes

cuts sections into imaginary lines

Body Sections

Transverse, Midsagittal, Frontal, Sagittal (4)

Transverse (cross) Section

divides the body into superior and inferior

Midsagittal (Median) Section

Divides the body into **equal** left or right

Frontal (coronal) Section

Divides the body into anterior or posterior (front and back)

Sagittal Section

divide the body into left or right parts

Body Systems

Endocrine, Urine, Cardiovascular, Skeletal, Muscle, Reproductive, Integumentary, Nervous, Lymphatic, Digestive

Endocrine System

* **Secretees chemical molecules, called hormones into the blood**
* Body functions controlled by hormones include: Growth, Reproduction, Use of nutrients

Urinary System

* Includes: kidneys, uterus, urinary bladder, and urethra.
* Maintains acid-base balance
* Regulates water and electrolyte balance

Cardiovascular System

* Includes: heart and blood vessels.
* Blood transports: oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones.

Skeletal System

* Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints.
* Provides muscle attachment for movement, Protects vital organs, Site of blood cell formation, Stores minerals

Muscular System

* Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten)
* Produces movement of bones

Reproductive System

* For male, it includes: the testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and duct system.
* Testes produce sperm
* Duct system carries sperm to exterior
* For female, includes: the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
* Ovaries produce eggs
* Uterus provides site of development for fetus

Integumentary System (Skin System)

* Forms skin, hair, and fingernails; waterproofs the body
* Protects deeper tissue from injury, Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight, Excretes salts in perspiration (sweat), Helps regulate body temperature, Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

Nervous System

* Fast-Acting control system
* Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors
* Responds to internal and external stimuli

Lymphatic System

* Includes: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs
* Heart pumps blood
* Houses white blood cells

Digestive System

* Includes: the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory organs


* Breaks down food
* Allows for nutrient absorption into blood

Homeostasis

Stimulus, Receptor, Control Center, Effector, Input, Output, Positive vs Negative feedback loops, Afferent pathway, efferent pathway; Responsiveness

Homeostasis

maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions

What are the main control systems for homeostasis?

Nervous system and Endocrine system

The Elements of a Homeostatic Control System

Receptor, Control center, effector

Stimulus (HCS)

produces a change in the variable; causes a reaction (RECEPTOR IS THE NASAL PASSAGE?)

Receptor (HCS)

* Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
* Sends information to control center along an afferent pathway
* DETECTS CHANGE

Input (HCS)

Information is sent along afferent pathway to control center.

Control Center (HCS)

* Determines set point
* Analyzes information
* Determines appropriate response
* Sends information down efferent pathway to effector

Effector (HCS)

* Provides a means for response to the stimulus
* Information flows from control center to effector along efferent pathway

Response (HCS)

The response of the effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and return the variable to homeostatic levels.

Feedback Mechanisms (loops)

Positive and negative feedback

Negative feedback

* most common feedback type


* Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
* Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
* Opposite thing will put you back into balance (if you are cold, you need heat)
* Works like a household thermostat (ex: when you sweat you cool down, when its dark you turn on light, when you are hungry you eat)

Positive feedback

* Rare in human body
* Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
* Reaction occurs at a faster rate
* Same thing will put you back into balance (if you cut yourself, you keep bleeding till it stops)
* In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby

Cell Types

Fibroblast, Erythrocyte, Epithelial, Fat, Macrophage, Neuron, Oocyte, Sperm, Red Blood Cells

Fibroblast (cell)

Cells that make fibers; Secretes cable-like fibers

Erythrocyte (cell)

Red blood cell; Carries oxygen in the bloodstream

What is another name for a red blood cell?

Erythrocyte

Epithelial (cell)

**Covers and lines the body’s organs**; Packs together in sheets; intermediate fibers resist tearing during rubbing or pulling

Fat (cell)

Stores nutrients; lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm

macrophage (cell)

fights disease; another name for white blood cell; Digests infectious microorganisms

What is another word for a white blood cell?

Macrophage

Neuron (cell)

gathers information and control body functions; Nerve cell; ▪Receives and transmits messages to other body structures

Oocyte (cell)

female reproductive cell; Largest cell in the body; Divides to become an embryo upon fertilization

Sperm (cell)

male reproductive cell; Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization; Flagellum acts as a motile whip

Red blood cells

Isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic

Cell Organelles

Mitochondria, ribosomes, rough ER, smooth ER, golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes, microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, centrioles, nucleus, nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin

What is a solution?

Homogeneous mixture of two or more components

What is a solvent?

dissolving medium present in the larger quantity; the body’s main solvent is water (DISSOLVES)

What is a solute?

components in smaller quantities within a solution. (IS DISSOLVED)

Osmosis

Active and Passive transport

Active Transport

the cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the transport process.

Passive Transport

substances are transported across the membrane without any input from the cell

Diffusion (passive)

* Molecule movement is from high concentration to low concentration, down a concentration gradient
* Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
* Kinetic energy (energy of motion) causes the molecules to move about randomly
* Size of the molecule and temperature affect the speed of diffusion

What will cause a molecule to move by diffusion?

–The molecules are small enough to pass through the membrane’s pores (channels formed by membrane proteins)

–The molecules are lipid-soluble

–The molecules are assisted by a membrane carrier

What are the types of diffusion?

Simple diffusion

* ▪Unassisted movement of solutes

▪Solutes are lipid-soluble or small enough to pass through membrane pores
* –Osmosis—simple diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

What is the smallest unit of all living things

Cell

The skeletal muscles that contract and shorten to move bones form the ________ system.

muscular

The right and left lumbar regions are lateral to the ________ region.

umbilical

A young child sustained a baseball hit to his pelvic cavity. Which bones were fractured?

Hips

The epigastric region is ________ to the umbilical region.

superior

The navel is located in the ________ region of the abdominopelvic cavity.

umbilical

The two major internal body cavities are the ________ cavity and the ________ cavity.

ventral and dorsal

Which of these internal body cavities is the most inferior?

pelvic cavity