Lab Practical 2

(unfortunately) i cannot add any organ structure pictures

What does ELISA stand for?

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

What does a strongly positive test vs slightly positive ELISA test indicate?

It indicates the amount of antibodies the patient has. The darker green the test result, the more the patient has.

What is an indicator?

A substance that gives a visible sign, usually by a color change, of the presence or absence of a threshold concentration of a chemical.

What are antigens?

Any substance (usually a protein or carbohydrate) that induces the production of antibodies by immune cells. Usually is a substance that is "foreign" to the host.

What are antibodies?

A type of protein called an immunoglobulin found in the blood that is produced by immune cells in response to the presence of a foreign particle (antigen).

What do antigens and antibodies have to do with ELISA?

In an ELISA, the antigen (target macromolecule) is immobilized on a solid surface (microplate) and then complexed with an antibody that is linked to a reporter enzyme. The most crucial element of an ELISA is a highly specific antibody-antigen interaction.

What does a wet spirometer measure?

It measures lung volumes by capturing air in an inverted chamber.

What are the expected values for TV?

500mL for males and 460mL for females.

What are the expected values for RV?

1200mL for males and 900mL for females.

What do restrictive disorders do to the lungs?

They stop the lungs from fully expanding.

What do obstructive disorders do to the lungs?

They impede the ability to exhale.

Examples of obstructive disorders in the lungs:

COPD, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis.

Examples of inspiratory and expiratory issues of restrictive disorders in the lungs:

Inspiratory issues: Decrease in lung elasticity (scaring/fibrosis) or a problem with expansion of the chest wall during inspiration, muscles too weak to inflate the lungs.

Expiratory issues: Weak muscles (accessory), obesity, and pregnancy.

Lung volumes:

Measurements of air movement into and out or the lungs

Lung capacities:

A sum of two or more lung volumes

TV stands for what?

Tidal Volume. It is the volume of air breathed in a normal breath: in and out.

RV stands for what?

Reserve Volume. The amount of air always left in the lungs.

Your lungs retain 1200 ml, unless a lung collapses!

IRV stands for what?

Inspiratory Reserve Volume. The amount of air that can be inhaled beyond the normal inhalation – during quiet breathing.

Up to 3000ml

ERV stands for what?

Expiratory Reserve Volume. It is forced exhalation after normal inhalation.

About 2000ml

Total lung capacity:

The sum of all lung volumes

Vital capacity:

TV+IRV+ERV

Inspiratory capacity:

TV+IRV

Functional residual capacity:

ERV+RV

Forced expiratory vital capacity:

The amount of air expelled in a specific amount of time, after maximum inhalation.

Thyroid cartilage is more commonly know as what?

Adam’s apple

What does arytenoid cartilage do?

It moves the vocal cords.

Swallowing involves what?

Larynx moves upwards (muscle movement)

Epiglottis covers the glottis (opening)

Prevents food and fluid from entering the trachea (windpipe)

Benedicts solution indicates what?

When a monosaccharide (sugar: glucose) is present.

When adding iodine (yellow/orange) to a starch solution you should expect a?

Dark blue/black color change

What color change happens in a positive Benedicts test?

Blue to orange/red

Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down?

Starch

What are enzymes?

Proteins which facilitate all physiology, act on specific molecules, and often their names end in “ase.”

What are the two forms of amylose?

Salivary and Pancreatic

Starch:

A large, polymer of glucose that is water-insoluble and is a storage of glucose.

Glucose:

A small, water-soluble molecule that cannot be stored because it dissolves in water.

Which enzymes were studied in the spit lab? How are they different?

Salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase.

Salivary glands produce salivary amylase into the mouth and initiates the carbohydrate digestion while the pancreas produces pancreatic amylase into the small intestine and completes carbohydrate digestion.

What are the normal test strip levels for pH?

pH should be slightly acidic (usually 6 or 6.5)

What are the normal test strip levels for glucose?

**None**

What are the normal test strip levels for bilirubin?

None

What are the normal test strip levels for protein?

0 to 14 mg/dL.

What are the normal test strip levels for leukocytes?

None

What may be a problem if urine pH levels are not normal?

It may be a sign of kidney stones.

(your pH varies during the day going from more acid in the am to more alkaline in the pm).

What may be a problem if urine glucose levels are not normal?

A positive urinalysis for glucose can indicate diabetes.

If the pancreas isn’t producing enough insulin, glucose will spill over into the urine.

What may be a problem if urine bilirubin levels are not normal?

It can be an early indication of liver disease.

Though, the reason pee is yellow is because of the bilirubin cycle (the recycling of blood cells by the body).

What may be a problem if urine protein levels are not normal?

It means you may have Proteinuria (protein in the urine). It can indicate kidney disease.

What may be a problem if urine leukocyte levels are not normal?

It can indicate an infection in the kidney or bladder, a possible UTI.

What is the problem if there is blood in the urine?

It could be benign conditions such as a urinary tract infection (UTI), kidney stones, kidney infection, medication, menstruation, or strenuous exercise.

Or it could be an early sign of bladder cancer and upper tract urothelial carcinoma.

Why is urine a good, non-intrusive way to investigate the homeostasis (health/pathology) of the body?

Urinalysis is a good way to monitor the functions of the body because it is known what is normal and what is not. 

What is the path of renal blood flow?

Renal artery -> segmental arteries -> interloper arteries -> arcuate arteries -> cortical radiate arteries -> afferent arterioles -> glomerulus -> efferent arterioles -> peritubular capillaries -> cortical radiate veins -> arcuate veins -> interlobar veins -> renal vein.

What is the path of urine formation?

Glomerulus> Bowman’s Capsule> Renal Tubule> Renal Pelvis> Ureter

What do anti*gens* cause your body to *gen*erate?

Antibodies, which are made by our immune systems to fight off invaders.

The antibodies in the ELISA test are where?

In your serum (the liquid portion of your blood that does NOT contain anticoagulant, blood cells or clotting factors). 

ELISA can be used to test for?

Lupus (an autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks self and results in widespread inflammation and tissue damage, which affects skin, joints, brain, kidneys, blood vessels, lungs)

or

COVID (if you have ever had a false positive may be that you were exposed to the virus and your body mounted an attack without you experiencing symptoms)

What temperature did we incubate the ELISA samples at?

37 degrees Celsius, which is body temperature: 98.6 Fahrenheit.

What is the path of air?

Nose->Nasopharynx->Oropharynx->Epiglottis->Glottis->Larynx->Trachea->Right or left bronchus->Bronchioles->Alveoli

Where does gas exchange occur?

Alveoli

How many alveoli are there?

400 million

Why are lung volumes higher in males?

It is because their lungs are larger.

The nose is where what happens?

Air is filtered and warmed in the nasal conchae

When you get laryngitis what happens?

You cannot talk because the larynx is the “voice box".”

What does the epiglottis do?

It keeps food and drink out of your lungs.

The glottis is what?

The part of the pharynx that contains the larynx.

The diaphragm is what?

The primary muscle of respiration.

COPD is what and includes what?

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary (lung) Disease (generally harder to breathe out) and includes: asthma, bronchitis and emphysema (happens after years of smoking/vaping).

The throat model from superior to inferior:

(With the huge hyoid bone at the top), under it is Thyroid Cartilage, then Cricoid Cartilage, then the Trachea. At the back is the Arytenoid Cartilages. The vocal chords are the brown leather part in as you look down.

If you were to follow a piece of food from the beginning of the digestive system to the end what would you pass through (in order)?

Mouth> Oropharynx> Esophagus> Stomach> Duodenum> Jejunum>Ileum> Cecum> Ascending Colon> Transverse Colon> Descending Colon> Sigmoid Colon> Rectum> Anus

How do you determine sex in fetal pigs?

Male fetal pigs have a scrotum.

Mechanical digestion includes what?

Your teeth (which masticate your food and the muscular stomach walls, which contract to help with coating your stomach contents with the Chemicals of Digestion).

Chemicals include proteins that are what?

Protein

Enzymes break down what?

Complex molecules like starch into sugars.

(the enzyme responsible for this is Amylase, which is present in your spit and produced by the Pancreas.)

The indicator for starch is what?

Iodine

If you add salivary Amylase (spit) to starch, you would expect what?

Amylase to start to break down the starch into sugar.

You have 2 of what 2 things?

2 Kidneys and 2 Ureters

You only have 1 of what 2 things?

Bladder and Urethra

The functional unit of the kidney is what?

The nephron

Where is Bowman’s Capsule located?

It is a part of the nephron.

Where is the glomerulus located?

Inside Bowman’s Capsule (which is a part of the nephron).

Will you pass the lab practical?

Yes :)

What lines the stomach?

Gastric folds

What connective tissue anchors the small intestine?

Splanchnic mesoderm