psych 1101 UGA Howard Exam 1

Psychology is...

•A scientific discipline

•Uses critical thinking and systematic methods to examine assumptions and evaluate evidencE

Wilhelm Wundt

One of the founders of modern psychology

•"Atoms of the mind"

Structuralism

uses introspection to discover the structure of the mind

Functionalism

investigates the function/purpose of behavior, thoughts, & feelings

William Jame

strong proponent of functionalism, "Father of American Psychology"

Mary Whiton Calkins

Harvard refused to grant her a PhD, despite having completed all requirements and outscoring her male colleagues

•Studied memory

•First woman president of APA

Basic Research

Builds knowledge base

Applied Research

Searches for solutions to immediate problems

Theory

- An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or event

Hypothesis

testable prediction, often implied by theory

Operational definition

A carefully constructed concept regarding the exact procedures used in a research study

Correlation

- a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Positive correlation - when one factor increases, the other also increases

•Negative correlation - inverse relationship; when one factor increases, the other decreases

independent variable

the factor that is manipulated; variable who's effect is being studied

Dependent variable:

the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Experimental group

exposed group

Control group

unexposed group

Confounding variable

something other than the IV that might be impacting the DV
Controlled by random assignment

Random assignment

participants are randomly assigned to experimental or control groups; every participant has an equal chance of being in either group

Double blind procedure

when neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which group is receiving the treatment

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectation alone

Works better if you believe that it is going to work

Works better in children than adults

Examples
-Analgesia- relief of pain
-Enhance mood
-Reduced anxiety
-Alleviating stomach ulce

Neuron

Specialized for sending information- receives, integrates, and transmits information

Soma

the cell body of the neuron

Dendrites

the branching fibers that receive signals from other cells

Nucleus

contains genetic material

Axon

the long fiber that passes the message from the cell body to neighboring cells

Myelin sheath

the fatty insulation that speeds the transmission of signals down to the axon (often formed by Schwann cells)- prevents interference in the axon

Nodes of ranvier

gap between the segments of the myelin sheath along the axon
Axon terminal- the ends of the chances of an axon; contact the next cell to transmit the message (allows for continuance of transmission to neighboring cells)

The action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron

The way neurons send messages one place to another

A flash of light
Pressure
Temp change
Presense of chemical

At rest the inside of an axon has a voltage of about -70 mV the resting potential

Threshold of excitation

or an action potential to occur, a stimulus must raise the voltage of the axon to a threshold of -55 mV, the

Once you meet threshold the neuron depolarizes and repolarizes due to the flow of Na+ and K+ ions from the cell

The cell undershoots resting potential and has to recover, leading to a neuron's refractory period

All or none principle

the way a neuron fires an action potential is either on or off; there are no bigger or smaller actions potentials

Where does the difference of how we hear soft vs loud sounds or see dark vs dim come from\>

comes from how many neurons send an action potential at one time; as well as how frequently the neuron fire- fire more frequently for more intense stimulus

myelinated ion

action potential jumps between one node and the next, still flows through axon, just makes it flow much quicker and efficiently to avoid interruption -

on a non-mylenated it flow slower and more steadily

The synapse

The place where two neurons meet is the synapse

Neurons dont actually touch

Neurotransmitters

chemicals that cross a synapse, bind to a post synaptic neuron and cause changes (like action potential)

Can degrade- they are taken back to soma- worked on and then used again

Acetylcholine

makes muscles contact; ALSO INCOLVED LEARNIGN AND memory- controls every single muscle fiber, present throughout brain

Nerve gas is a bio weapon that causes a disruption of the acetylcholine receptors- causes contractions of all muscles- major problem for lungs (many people die of suffocation)

Dopamine

movement, learning, attention, and emotion
Associated with drugs

People with Parkinson's have a disruption in dopamine

Serotonin

mood, hunger, sleep, arousal

Reuptake

- the process by which a presynaptic neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitters from the synapse

SSRi- selective seratonin reuptake inhibitor- stays in synapse waiting for ut to bind- bonds to post-synaptic neurons- elevates serotonin and alleviates

Lock and key mechanisms

receptor sites that neurotransmittersmitters bind to receptors on the post synaptic cells- built With specific proteins- must have that protein to work

Endorphins

Painkillers produced but he body

Morphine and other opiates have an analgesic affect because they bind to the brains receptor for endorphins

- opiates mimic endorphins and cause the release of pain- we don't have literal morphine receptors

Acupuncture sets off endorphins and releases pain

Agonist

molecule that increases the action of a neurotransmitternsmitter

- ex- morphine generates the effect of an endorphin with out the actual endorphin being present

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter

The nervous system

The set of all neurons that communicate with neurotransmitters throughout your body

Central nervous system

- brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Nerves- bundle of axons that form neural cables to connect the CNS with muscles, glands, organs, etc

sensory neurons

- carry messages from the body tissues inward to the CNS

motor neurons

- carry messages from the CNS outward to the muscles and glands

interneurons-

neurons that communicate internally and process info bt sensory inputs and motor outputs; important in reflexes
1. Tells knee to move

PNS- Somatic nervous system

controls body's skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System: a division
• Two divisions: of the PNS

• Sympathetic Nervous System - arouses the body; mobilizes energy
- gets you ready to do work (fight or flight)


_ Parasympathetic Nervous System - calms the body; conserves energy (rest and digest)


- if you are stressed your parasympathetic nervous system is suppressed and the sympathetic takes over- aka digestion is turned off

Endocrine system

- a chemical communication system in the body; slower than neurons

Hormones

chemical messengers secreted by the glands of the endocrine system; travel through the blood stream

Adrenal gland

sits on top of the kidneys; releases epinephrine and norepinephrine

Pituitary gland

"master gland"; in the brain; releases hormones associated with puberty, birth, lactation, bonding, orgasm, etc., etc.
-CONTROLLED BYHYPOTHALAMUS

-associated with puberty

-initiates the release of oxytocin
during labor for contractions

- causes production of milk after birth

-surge of oxytocin after bonding with someone- positive surge of emotions associated with oxytocin

Tools of Discovery - Lesions

tissue destruction

• Selective, intentional destruction of brain structures can reveal their function

• Still sometimes performed on animal subjects

Brain doesn't feel pain

Cant do this on the human Brian

tools of discovery-
Micro-electrodes

can selectively stimulate single neurons in the animal brain

Electroencephalography (EEG)

a recording of the waves of electrical activity through the brain;

high temporal resolution- electrodes placed all over head and signals are taken down

Positron Emission Tomography scan (PET)

displays where the radioactive glucose flows into the brain when performing a particular task

- glucose has a radioactive tag on it
- flows into tissues doing work

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to display brain anatomy, blood flow, and brain activity

• Function AND structure- powerful but extremely expensive

- doesn't have the same temporal resolution at an EKG

The brainstem

Oldest part of the brain

- evolutionarily these structures exist in animals that are very different from us

- very basic- must be present in many diverse forms of life

-Begins where spinal cord enters skull

-Responsible for autonomic survival function- continues necessary functions when we sleep etc

Medula

part of the brain step, controls heart beat and breath

the Thalamus

1.Sensory control hub
2. On top of the brain stem
3. receives input from sensory systems and routes these messages to the cortex

The reticular formation

A neuron network that extends from the spinal cord through to the thalamus and cortex

•Controls arousal- activation and excitement of nervous system- wakeful, tired,


- processing when awake or asleep- someone who is asleep doesn't know you're talking to them

Cerebellum

""little brain"
-Sits at rear of brain
-Processes sensory input
-Coordinates movement
-Enables nonverbal memory

Limbic system

group of disparate structures located just below the cerebral hemisphere

Amygdala

linked to emotion
-Agression
- Fear
- Happens when you are threatened or unsure

Hypothalamus

Located just below the thalamus

b. directs body maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature


c. Governs the endocrine system by controlling the pituitary gland

d. Part of the pleasure and reward system of the brain

Hippocampus

a. formation and consolidation of memories

b. Name comes from the genus for the sea horse

c. Damage to the hippocampus limits the ability to form new associations and memories

Cerebral cortex

Layer of neural tissue covering the cerebral hemisphere

Specialized functions
Perception
Thought
Speech

Frontal lobe

a) planning
b)movement
c) logic
d) judgement

Motor cortex

Located in frontal lobe

control voluntary movements

a. Right hand activates left cortex of the motor cortex

Prefrontal cortex

a. Enables planning, judgement, processing new memories- develops until mid-late 20's

b. Phineas gage- pole pierced through Brian in accident- went through his prefrontal cortex, began to behave erratically, stopped acting the way he was expected to act

Parietal

a. Sensation
B. Touch
c. Body position

Occipital

a. Vision

I. Somatosensory cortex-

- registers body touch and movement sensations

(in parietal lobe)

Temporal

a. Hearing
b. Speech- being able to speak and being able to understand someone else

Lateralization

- The left and right hemispheres of the brain are specialized for different functions

i. Left brain: Language, right side of the body
ii. Right brain: Inference, Self awareness, left side of the body

Corpus callosum

- a band of tissues that joins the two hemispheres
- send messages back and forth between two hemispheres

III. Split brain

- when the two hemispheres of the brain are surgically separated
-stops epileptic seizures
-not the same thing as being right brained or left brained-

States fo consciousness

Daydreaming, dreaming, focused attention, hypnosis, hallucinateon, orgasm, sensory depravation

Inattentional blindness

- failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness

- failure to notice changes in the environment

Dual processing

- the idea that we simultaneously process info both consciously and unconsciously

Parallel processing

1. Can do a conscious and unconscious activity at the same time- its hard to do 2 conscious activities at the same time though- this is why most people can't multitask

- we don't really multitask- we switch tasks

Blindsight

A phenomenon in which people are consciously unaware of their ability to see some visual stimuli (they believe themselves to be completely blind), yet in forced situations, they can respond to visual stimuli

Cocktail party effect

-the ability to attend to only one voice among man

-Salient information can pull our attention away from one voice and toward another

•Our names
•Loud, clear voice

How do critters keep rhythm?

Options:
•endogenous circannual rhythms
•Example: Birds' migratory patterns, animals storing food for the winter

•endogenous circadian rhythms
•Also regulates the frequency of eating and drinking, body temperature, secretion of hormones, urination, and sensitivity to drug

Why keep rhythm?

1) keep our internal workings in phase from outside world

2) natural rhythms of humans
-slightly logger than 24 hours in absense of external cues
3) resetting circadian rhythms is sometimes necessary

Resetting rhythms

-A zeitgeberis a term used to describe any stimulus that resets the circadian rhythms
•Light is the primary zeigtgeber

•Exercise, noise, meals, and temperature are other zeitgeber

polysomnograph

combination of EEG and eye-movement records during sleep

EEG and sleep

- allowed researchers to discover that there are various stages of sleep
•Allows researchers to compare brain activity at different times during sleep

When are alpha waves present?

When someone has just begun a state of relaxation

stage 1 sleep

when sleep has just begun

a. EEG is dominated by irregular, jagged, low voltage waves

b. Brian activity declines

stage 2 sleep

characterized by the presence of sleep spindles (rapid function) and K-complexes (extreme higher and drop) these two things suggest better memories complexes

stage 3 and 4

together constitute slow wave sleep (SWS) and is characterized by
a) EEG is recording slow large amplitude wave
b) slowing of heart rate, breathing rate, and brain activity
c) highly synchronized neuronal activity

REM sleep

characterized by rapid eye movements during sleep
-also known as paradoxical sleep is deep sleep in some ways, but light sleep in other ways

-EEG waves are irregular, low voltage and fast

- postural muscles of the body are more relaxed than other stages

- predominant later in the night- increases as night goes on

-strongly associated with dreaming, but people also report dreaming in other stages of sleep.

Insomnia

- sleep disorder associated with inadequate sleep

- social factors- noise, stress, pain, medication, environmental issues

- can also be caused by epilepsy, Parkinson's, depression, anxiety, or other psychiatric conditions

-dependence on spying pills an shifts in circadian rhythms

Sleep apnea

-inability to breathe while sleeping

- sleepiness during the day , impaired attention, depression, and sometimes heart problems

-cognitive imprimete may result form loss of neurons due to insufficient oxygen levels

-causes include genetics, hormones, old ages, and deterioration of Brian mechanisms that control breathing

Narcolepsy

-characterized by frequent periods of sleepiness

-four main symptoms-
1. Gradual or sudden attack of sleepiness
2. Occasional cataplexy- muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions
3. Sleep paralysis- inability to move while asleep or waking up
4. Hypnagogic hallucination dreamlike experiences- very intense

Night terrors

-experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror
1. Usually occurs in non REM sleep
- sleep talking occurs during REM And NREM sleep
- sleep walking runs in families- mostly occurs on young children and occurs mostly in stage 3 or 4 sleep