Neuro Psych Final: Cedarville University Dewitt Spring 2022

neurons

receive and transmit information

CAN transport over long distances

glia

exchange chemicals with adjacent neurons

CANNOT transport over long distances

membrane

two layers of fatty phosolipids

small uncharged molecules that can move freely across the membrane

water (h20), oxygen (02), carbon dioxide (CO2)

charged ions need protein channels to pass through the membrane

sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), chloride (Cl)

4 major structures that compose a neuron

dendrites: branching fibers, information receiver

axon: information sender

soma: cell body; contains nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria

presynaptic terminals: axon releases chemicals here that cross from one neuron to another through the synaptic gap

afferent axons

bring information INTO the structure; sensory neurons

efferent axons

send information AWAY from the structure; motor neurons

sensory neurons

send messages from the skin and senses TO the brain

motor neurons

sends messages from the brain OUT to the muscles

interneurons

work in the spinal cord and brain to help process/transmit information

nucleus

structure that contains chromosomes

mitochrondria

powerhouse of the cell

ribosomes

site of protein synthesis in the cell

endoplasmic reticulum

network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations

myelin sheath

covering found on some axons that insulates the axon and increases the speed of transmission

Nodes of Ranvier

interruptions in the myelin sheath that facilitate rapid conduction

saltatory conduction

jumping of action potentials from node to node

astrocyte

star shaped; wrap around synaptic terminals of axons; helps synchronize the activity of axons enabling them to send messages in wave; removes waste materials when neurons die

olgodendrocytes

surrounds and insulates certain axons in the brain and spinal cord; builds myelin sheaths around the brain and spinal cord

schwan cells

surround and insulates certain axons in the periphery of the body; builds myelin sheaths around axons in the periphery of the body

radial glia

guides migration of neurons; guides growth of axons and dendrites during embryo development

micro glia

proliferate in areas of brain damage; removes toxic materials

blood brain barrier

keeps out viruses, bacteria, and harmful chemicals; uncharged and lipid soluble molecules can cross

active transport

protein mediated process that pumps useful things from the blood into the brain

concentration gradient

sodium 10x more concentrated outside the membrane

potassium 20x more concentrated inside the membrane

sodium potassium pump

ACTIVELY transports 3Na out and 2K in

synapse

gap between two neurons where communication occurs; sherrington

temporal summation

several impulses from one neuron over time

spatial summation

impulses from several neurons at separate locations at the same time

glutamate and GABA

glutamate: excitatory

GABA: inhibitory, puts the brakes on

trytophan

precursor to serotonin in the brain, makes you tired

ionotropic

attachment causes immediate opening of an ion gate

metabotropic

relies of second messenger, alters receptor protein

affinity

how strongly a drug binds to a receptor

efficacy

tendency of a drug to activate a receptor

Bell-Mengendie Law

sensory neurons enter on the DORSAL side

motor neurons exit on the VENTRAL side

meninges

membrane surrounding the brain and spinal cord

cerebral spinal fluid

cushions the brain

provides buoyancy

provides hormones to the brain and spinal cord

provides nutrition for the brain and spinal cord

hydrocephalus

obstruction of cerebral spinal fluid flow

law of specific nerve endings

any impulse in a given nerve sends the same kind of message to the brain

fovea

center of most precise vision

rods

black/white vision

faint light

most abundant in the periphery of the retina

cones

color vision

bright light

most abundant around/in the fovea

young-hemholtz theory (trichromatic)

3 kinds of cones...long wavelengths are red, short are blue, medium are green

opponent-process theory (hering)

we perceive color in terms of paired opposites (red vs green, yellow vs blue, white vs black) 3 receptor complexes

retinex theory (color constancy, edwin land)

information from the retina reaches the cortex and the cortex compares brightness and color perception for each area

myopia

nearsightedness

hyperopia

farsightedness

presbyopia

difficult to focus up close

astigmatism

blurring of lines in one direction; asymmetric curvature of the eyes

color-vision deficiency

inability to perceive color differences

color blindness

inability to perceive anything but shades of black and white

motion blindness (akinetopsia)

failure to detect that an object is moving

visual agnosia

inability to recognize objects

prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces

lazy eye (amblyopia ex anopsia)

ignores vision in one eye

strabismus

eyes don't point in the same direction or focus on the same thing

average adult can hear

15-20,000Hz

pinna

outer ear; helps locate sound

tympanic membrane (ear drum)

vibrates at same frequency as the sound wave

parts of tympanic membrane

hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), stirrup (stapes)

oval window

membrane from middle ear to the cochlea in the inner ear

cochlea

snail shaped tubes:

scala vestibuli

scala media

scala tympani

frequency theory

basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with sound, producing action potentials at the same frequency

place theory

sound causes one location along the basilar membrane to resonate: string on a piano

volley principle

volleys of responses by many auditory neurons

amusia

tone deafness:

cannot detect changes in pitch

cannot recognize tunes

thinks everyone sings beautifully

absolute pitch

ability to hear a note and identify it

genetics but also early music training

cortical motion deafness

hears sound but unable to tell that it is moving

conductive deafness

middle ear deafness, can hear themselves clearly

nerve deafness/inner ear deafness

damage to cochlea, hair cells, basilar membrane, or auditory nerve

tinnitus

similar to phantom limb

frequent ringing in their ears

damage to nerve endings

caused by loud noise, extra earwax, stiffening of inner ear bones

james-lange theory

physiological response comes before emotion

cannon-bard

physiological response and emotion occur simultaneously

schacter-singer theory

cognitive appraisal is needed to identify the emotion

old treatment for panic disorder

barbiturates: tranquilizers...habit forming and fatal in overdose (especially when combined with alcohol)

treatment for panic disorder (benzos)

benzodiazepines:

valium (diazapam)

libium (diazepoxide)

xanax (alprazolem)

leukocytes (white blood cells)

key player in the immune syste

b-cells

mature in bone marrow

secrete antibodies (Y-shaped like lock and key)

attach + attack

t-cells

mature in the thymus gland

2 kinds: cytotoxic (attack without secreting antibodies)

helper t-cells: help t or b cells multiply

natural killer cells

blood cells that attack tumor cells

attacks almost all intruders

macrophages

surround intruder and digest it

cover + consume

cytocines

attack infections

communicate with the brain to stimulate anti-illness behavior

stimulates vagus nerve by releasing prostaglandins which effects the hypothalamus and hippocampus

anti-illness behavior

fever

fatigue

sleepiness

lack of appetite

lack of sex drive

aspirin/ibuprofen

decrease fever by inhibiting prostaglandins

psychoimmunology

study of stress on the immune system

prolonged stress has similar symptoms as depression

sleep cycle: stage 1

low breathing

low brain waves

low heart rate

muscles relax

hallucinations

hypnagogic sensations (floating, jerks)

sleep cycle: stage 2

sleep spindles

asleep but easily awakened

sleep cycle: stage 3

transitional stage

sleep cycle: stage 4

deep sleep

hard to awaken

talking in sleep

walking in sleep

sleep cycle: REM

paradoxical sleep

genital arousal

twitching

paralyzed

not easily awakened

internal body is aroused, external is very calm

vivid dreams

locus coeruleus

releases norepinephrine

hypothalamus

releases histamine

hypothalamus (2)

releases orexin + hypocretin

basal forebrain

releases GABA + acetylcholine

endogenous circannual rhythm

annual seasonal changes

endogenous circadian rhythm

daily rhythms

zeitgeber

stimulus for resetting the circadian rhythm

phase-delay

traveling WEST, stay up late and awake already adjusted