AP PYSCHOLOGVY UNIT 0

Critical thinking

Thinking that evaluates evidence and assumptions instead of blindly accepting arguments.

Cognitive biases

Systematic errors in thinking that affect decisions and judgments.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have predicted it.

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge or judgments.

Scientific Method

A systematic process for asking questions, forming hypotheses, conducting research, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.

Peer review

Evaluation of research by experts in the field before publication to ensure quality and accuracy.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Operational definition

A precise description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study.

Social desirability bias

Tendency of participants to answer questions in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-report bias

Inaccuracy in responses due to memory errors, exaggeration, or desire to look good.

Random sample

A subset of the population chosen so that every member has an equal chance of being selected.

Sampling bias

A sample that does not accurately represent the population.

Population

The entire group of individuals a study aims to describe or analyze.

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables, indicating how one predicts the other.

Correlation coefficient (r)

A numerical value from −1 to +1 representing the strength and direction of a correlation.

Variables

Factors that can change or vary in a study.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables when none exists.

Scatterplot

A graph of points representing the values of two variables to show their relationship.

Regression towards the mean

The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average upon retesting.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Random assignment

Placing participants into experimental and control groups by chance to reduce bias.

Placebo effect

Change resulting from participants’ expectations rather than the actual treatment.

Single-blind procedure

Only participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind procedure

Both participants and researchers do not know group assignments, reducing bias.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent variable (DV)

The outcome variable that is measured to assess the effect of the IV.

Confounding (3rd) variable

An uncontrolled factor that may influence the results of a study.

Validity

The extent to which a test or study measures what it claims to measure.

Research design

The overall strategy and structure used to conduct a study.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique combining results from multiple studies to find overall trends.

Case study

Intensive examination of one person or small group; provides detailed information but limited generalizability.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

Survey

Collecting self-reported data through questionnaires or interviews.

Cross-sectional study

Compares different groups at a single point in time to identify patterns or differences.

Longitudinal study

Follows the same participants over an extended period to observe changes and development.

Experimental study

Manipulates an independent variable to observe causal effects on a dependent variable.

Correlational study

Measures the relationship between two variables without manipulation.

Descriptive statistics

Methods for organizing, summarizing, and describing data.

Histogram

A bar graph representing the frequency of scores in intervals.

Central tendency

A measure that represents the center or typical value of a dataset.

Mean

Average score; sum of all scores divided by the number of scores.

Median

Middle score in an ordered set of numbers.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score in a dataset.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard deviation (SD)

A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean.

Normal curve

Bell-shaped distribution of scores, where most fall near the mean.

Statistically significant

Results unlikely to be due to chance.

Informed consent

The process of providing participants with all relevant information about a study.

Ethics in research

Ensures participant safety, informed consent, confidentiality, and humane treatment of animals.