Endterm PQRM

What does qualitative research approach emphasize?

Contextual and subjective accuracy

What does quantitative research seek?

Generalizability

What is the aim of qualitative research?

Describe and understand social phenomena

What does qualitative research look for?

Meaning

What methods does qualitative research use?

Flexible methods

What is the nature of qualitative research data?

Rich and descriptive

How is qualitative data analyzed?

Identification and coding of themes

Does grounded theory start with a hypothesis?

No

What does grounded theory start with?

Data

What is the purpose of coding in qualitative research?

Attach labels to data segments

What are the three types of coding?

Open, axial, selective

What is the starting point in deductive research?

Theory

What philosophical approach is associated with deductive research?

Positivism

What is the sequence in deductive research?

Theory -> Hypothesis -> Observation -> Confirmation

What is the starting point in inductive research?

Data

What philosophical approach is associated with inductive research?

Interpretism

What is the sequence in inductive research?

Observation -> Pattern -> Tentative Hypothesis -> Theory

What informs the research question in inductive research?

Accumulated knowledge

What does inductive research let the project do?

Sensitize

When do you conduct qualitative research?

When there is no answer to a specific question

What should you show in a literature review?

The gap

What is purposive sampling?

Intentionally selecting a sample based on study needs

What is theoretical sampling?

Purposeful and iterative sampling in grounded theory

What does epistemology study?

Knowledge

What is positivism?

Observing behavior, cause and effect, variables, and relationships

For what type of research is positivism better suited?

Research done for decades

What did Francis Bacon say about knowledge?

It is perfect

What does positivism aim to do with hypotheses?

Generate and test them

What is interpretivism?

Understanding the world from an individual's point of view

What type of process is interpretivism?

Subjective

For what type of research is interpretivism better suited?

New things research

What did Harriet Martineau say about truth?

There is no truth

What does interpretivism offer?

An interpretation

What is post-positivism?

Between positivism and interpretivism

What did Karl Popper say about knowledge?

It cannot be perfectly known

How can we generate truthful knowledge according to epistemology?

Interpretivism, Positivism

What is the methodology for interpretivism?

Case study, grounded theory

What is the methodology for positivism?

Experiments, surveys

What methods does interpretivism use to acquire knowledge?

Interviews, observation, discourse analysis

What methods does positivism use to acquire knowledge?

Questionnaires, structured observations

What is an unstructured interview?

Informational conversational interview

What guides a semi-structured interview?

General interview guide

What type of questions are used in a semi-structured interview?

Open-ended, non-dichotomous, singular, clear

What is a structured interview?

Standardized open-ended

What are the ethical principles in qualitative work?

Fairness, transparency, informed consent, confidentiality

When do you start your data analysis in qualitative research?

From the beginning of research

What are the first steps in qualitative data analysis?

Conduct & transcribe interviews, read & reread, analyze while collecting

Are there strict rules for qualitative data analysis?

No, only guides

What is segmenting in qualitative data analysis?

Cutting data in meaningful segments, assigning labels, organizing labels into categories, comparing categories

What is reassembling in qualitative data analysis?

Finding relationships, assessing credibility, theoretical model

How do you prepare for coding?

Compile database, file naming system, page and line numbers

What is a transcript?

Accurate written record of audio/visual data

What are the rules for transcribing interviews?

Write what you hear, delete crutch words, finish unfinished sentences with "-", add comments in [brackets], spelling, use "..." if something is left out, italics for emphasis, identify pauses

What are the two types of open coding?

Open, In vivo

What is in vivo coding?

Label directly from text, use only words from transcript

What is axial coding?

Rearrange the code to categories

What is selective coding?

Identify core variable grounded in data

How to understand the spiral of analysis?

Left side: Input, Middle: Researcher tasks, Right side: Output

What are the steps in the spiral of analysis?

Data collection, Open coding, Axial coding, Selective coding

What is involved in data collection?

Ethical principles, Sampling, Formulating RQ and purpose, Reviewing literature & theory

What are the types of open coding?

In vivo, Researcher-denoted, Theoretical

What is researcher-denoted coding?

Summarized by researcher

What is theoretical coding?

Apply labels from theory

What are the characteristics of the core in selective coding?

Central, Heart of analysis, Appears frequently, Not easily saturated, Abstract formulation, Facilitates analysis

What is the principle of constant comparison?

Alternating data collection and analysis, Non-linear process, Compare new data with previous results

What is involved in building a grounded theory?

Identify patterns, Find contradictory patterns, Support for patterns

What are sensitizing concepts?

Important features of social interaction, Guidelines for research

What is theoretical saturation?

No new data in interviews, Similar patterns appear

What is iteration in research?

Incorporate learning throughout the process

What is ethnography?

Study of human behavior in natural setting, Participation, Observation

When is ethnography used?

Study new phenomena, Uncover hidden aspects

What distinguishes a case study?

End result is understanding, not theory, Various methods

What are the important aspects of content analysis?

Frequency counts, Grouping texts into codes

When to use content analysis?

Identifying frequent ideas, Social media analysis

What are the key activities before data collection?

Ethical principles, Sampling, Formulating RQ and purpose, Reviewing literature & theory

What are the steps in open coding?

In vivo coding, Researcher-denoted coding, Theoretical coding

What is theoretical saturation?

No new data, Similar patterns

What are the main differences in ethnography?

More observation, Fewer questions

What distinguishes case studies?

Single-case, Multiple-case, Holistic unit, Embedded unit

What are the important aspects of content analysis?

Frequency counts, Grouping texts into codes

What is the focus of grounded theory?

Generate theory from data

What analytical approach is used in grounded theory?

Constant comparison

What analytical approach is used in ethnography?

Thick description

What are the data collection methods for ethnography?

Participant observation, Interviews, Gathering artifacts

What is the focus of a case study?

In-depth examination of a single case or small number of cases

What analytical approach is used in case studies?

Using multiple analytical techniques

What are the data collection methods for case studies?

Interviews, Observations, Surveys, Document analysis

What is the focus of content analysis?

Systematic analysis of textual or visual data

What analytical approach is used in content analysis?

Identifying recurring themes, patterns, or trends

What are the data collection methods for content analysis?

Textual or visual data, Surveys, Media content, Social media posts

What is the quality principle associated with internal validity in quantitative research?

Truth value of evidence

What is the qualitative equivalent of internal validity?

Credibility

What is the quality principle associated with external validity/generalizability in quantitative research?

Applicability of evidence

What is the qualitative equivalent of external validity/generalizability?

Transferability

What is the quality principle associated with reliability in quantitative research?

Consistency of evidence

What is the qualitative equivalent of reliability?

Dependability

What is the quality principle associated with objectivity in quantitative research?

"Neutrality" of evidence

What is the qualitative equivalent of objectivity?

Confirmability