Mr.Sinn Unit 3 Psych Notes

In what two ways do researchers approach human development?

Chronological Order and Thematic Issues

Chronological Order

Focuses on how people develop in a sequence as they age. Here the research focuses on the different life stages an individual will go through such as infancy, childhood, adolescence, and eventually adulthood.

Thematic Issues

Focuses on specific themes and topics that span across a person’s life

Stability Vs Change

This theme explores how certain characteristics of an individual will remain constant over time while others evolve and change

Longitudal Studies

Involve studying the same group of people over a long period of time. They are used to gain insight into changes and patterns that occur over an extended period of time.

They are great at tracking developmental changes, understanding different trends and patterns exist over time and possibly even gaining insight into cause and effect relationships

Continuous development

Refers to develop that is gradual and smooth and builds upon each other

Discontinuous Development

Development that occurs in distinct stages or steps

Cross Sectional Research

Involves studying different groups of people at different ages all at the same time. Cross sectional research allows researchers to gather data quickly.

What are the downsides of cross sectional research?

Cross sectional research does not show relationships between variables. It also can’t show change over time and can be impacted by the cohort effect

Cohort Effect

When there is differences among a group of people that are caused by circumstances that are unique to their generation rather than by their age.

In what two ways do researchers approach human development?

Chronological Order and Thematic Issues

Chronological Order

Focuses on how people develop in a sequence as they age. Here the research focuses on the different life stages such as infancy, childhood, adolescence and eventually adulthood

Thematic Issues

Focuses on specific themes and topics that span across a person’s life

Stability Vs Change:

This thematic issue explores how certain characteristics of an individual will remain constant over time while others evolve and change

Longitudal Studies

Involve studying the same group of people over a long period of time. They are used to gain insight into changes that occur over an extended period of time

What are the benefits of longitdual studies?

Longitdual studies are great at tracking developmental changes, understanding trends and patterns exist over time, and possibly even gaining insight into cause and effect relationships

Continuous Development

Suggests that development is a gradual ongoing process with changes hapenning little by little over time

Discontinuous Development

Suggests that development happens in stages with big changes occuring at specific points in life

Teratogens

Substances that can cause birth defects or developmental problems in a developing fetus

Example: Alcohol, Tobacco, Drugs and environmental toxins

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

If a mother consumes alcohol during her pregnancy it can restrict oxygen flow to the fetus resulting in low birth weight, underdevelopment of the child, or a premature birth

Maternal Illness

Any disease and/or infection that a mother experiences during pregnancy that can affect the developing fetus

What makes a fetus more susceptible to the effects of teratogens or environmental toxins?

Genetic Mutations

Environmental factors can

cause genetic mutations or influence gene expression

Infant Reflexes

Involuntary Movements that help an infant with survival

Palmar Grasp

When a finger is placed in a baby’s palm the baby will close their hand around it

Plantar Grasp

When a finger is placed underneath a baby’s toes they will curl their toes

Rooting Reflex

When a baby’s cheek is gently stroked near their mouth they turn in that direction, mouth open, ready to eat

Gross Motor Skills

Involve larger movements such as crawling or walking allowing a child to navigate their environment

Fine Motor Skills

Involve smaller movements such as holding a spoon, these are critical for feeding, drawing, and playing

Visual Cliff Experiment

Provides insight into when an infant develops depth perception

Critical Period

A specfic window of time when a particular skill or behavior must be acquired. If the necessary experiences or stimuli are missing during this time the development of that skill may be significantly hindered or impossible to achieve later on

Sensitive Period

A time period where the brain is able to more quickly learn certain skills

Adolescent Growth Spurt

Rapid Increase in height and weight

Primary Sex Characteristics

Development of Reproductive Organs

Example: Menarche (First Menstrual Period)

Spermache (First Ejaculation)

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Other Bodily changes during puberty

Example: Breast Development in girls and facial hair in boys

Sensorimotor Stage

First Stage of Piaget’s Developmental Stages

During this stage a child’s ability to manipulate objects is the key to them understanding the world around them

What is the key development of the sensorimotor stage and what kind of understanding does the sensorimotor stage develop?

Object Permanence develops which is an individual’s ability to understand that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden. Infant establishes basic understanding of physical world

Preoperational Stage

Second Stage in Piaget’s Theory (2-7 Years Old) This stage is crucial for developing language, imagination and the basics of logical thought despite cognitive limitations

What are some key developments of the preoperational stage?

Mental Symbols: Proficient use of language and symbols

Pretend Play: Engaging in Imaginative Play (Example: using a stick as a sword)

Conservation: Children in this stage struggle to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape

Reversibility: Difficulty in understanding that objects can be changed and then returned to their original state

Animism: Attributing lifelike qualities to inanimate objects

Egocentrism: Difficulty in seeing things from other’s perspective

Theory of Mind: Occurs during second half of preoperational stage. Beginning to understand that others have thoughts and feelings different from their own.

Symbolic Thinking: A person’s ability to think about things that aren’t right in front of them

Concrete Operational Stage

Third Stage in Piaget’s Theory (7-11 years old)

This stage marks a significant improvement in cognitive abilities allowing children to understand and interact with the world in a more logical and realistic way

What are key developments in the concrete Operational stage?

Logical Thinking: Ability to think logically about concrete events

Overcoming Cognitive Errors: Correcting previous errors in understanding conservation and reversibility

-Less Egocentric Qualities

-Classification- When an individual can organize objects based on multiple attributes such as sorting objects by color and shape simultaneously

Seriation- When an individual can arrange items in quantative order such as arranging items in orde

What do individuals in the concrete Operational stage struggle with?

Struggle with abstract and hypothetical thinking and reasoning about possibilities

Formal Operational Stage

Last Stage in Piaget’s Theory (12+)

Allows for advanced problem solving and understanding complex ideas which are essential for adult intellectual functioning

Key developments in Formal Operational Stage

Abstract Thinking: Ability to think about abstract concepts such as justice and freedom

Hypothetical Thinking: Ability to think hypothetically and use deductive reasoning

What did Piaget believe was different about the Formal Operational Stage?

That it was not universal. Piaget suggested not everyone reaches this stage.

What does Vygostky’s Socio-Cultural Theory Consist of?

Social Learning, Scaffolding, and the Zone of Proximal Development

Social Learning

Children can learn through social interactions and cultural context

Example: Learning language through conversation with adults

Scaffolding

Support Provided by more knowledgeable others

Example: A teacher helping a student solve a problem and gradually reducing assistance as the child becomes more competent

Zone of Proximal Development

The gap between what child can ndo alone and what they can do with help

Example: A child can solve simple addition problems alone but needs guidance for more complex ones

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge accumulated over time; remains relatively stable through adulthood

Example: Vocabulary and General Knowledge

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to reason and solve new problems; tends to wane as people age

Example: Solving puzzles, problem solving

Cognitive Disorders

Conditions that affect cognitive functioning

Example: Dementia characterized by significant cognitive decline, affecting memory, thinking and social abilities

What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary symbols that are mutually agreed upon and rule governed to produce an infinite array of ideas

Example: The word tree is an arbitrary symbol that represents a specific type of plant

Phonemes

Smallest Units of Sound in a language Example: The sounds /b/ and /p/ in English

Why is being able to distinguish phonemes important?

Being able to distinguish phonemes helps with pronunciation since phonemes serve as the building blocks for spoken language

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in a language

Example: The word “cats” has two morphemes; “cat” (animal) and “s” (plural)

What do morphemes help with?

Morphemes help us know how words are formed and allow us to understand their meaning and changes.

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences

Example: Understanding that “bank” can mean the side of a river or a financial institution

Semantics are for

interpreting the meaning behind the word and sentence

What is the difference between morphemes and semantics?

Semantics are about interpreting the meaning behind words and sentences

Morphemes are about the structure of the word and how they are constructed

Grammar

Set of rules that dictate how words are combined to form sentences

Example: In English adjectives typically precede nouns ('“big house”)

Syntax

Arrangement of words and phrases to create well formed sentences. Basically a subcategory of grammar focusing on sentence structure

Example: “The cat sat on the mat” is a syntactically correct structure

Surface Structure Semantics

The literal meaning of words

Deep Structure Semantics

Underlying meaning of a sentence

Generativity

Ability to produce an infinite number of sentences and ideas using a finite number of elements

Example: combining words in different ways to create new sentences

The cat sat on the mat or the mat was sat on by the cat

Examples of Generative Language

-Creating new words such as “selfie” or “googling”

-Using existing words in novel way “She has a heart of gold”

Nonverbal gestures

Manual gestures used to communicate before and alongside verbal language

Example: Pointing at objects to indicate interest or desire

Cooing

(2-3 months) Soft repetitive Vowel Sounds such as “ooo” or “ahhh”

Babbling

4-8 months; Repetitve Vowel Consonants such as “da-da” or “ba-ba”

One Word Stage

Single words to convey complete ideas

Example: “toy” for “i want the toy”

Holophrases

When words will refer to different objects, people or individual needs

Example: “milk” for “I want Milk”

Telegraphic Speech

Only uses essential words in sentences. Two word combinations that resemble telegrams

Example: “Want Cookie”

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules too broadly

Example: Saying “goed” instead of “went” or “foots” instead of “feet”

Mispronunciations

Difficulty with certain sounds or combinations

Example: “Wabbit” for “Rabbit”

Simplifications

Using simpler forms of words or phrases

Example: “nana for banana”

Communication

Language is essential for effective communication

Example: Enables children to express needs, share ideas, and interact socially

Cognitive Development

Language Development supports cognitive growth

Example: Enhances problem solving skills, memory, and abstract thinking

Supporting language development in early childhood is critical for

fostering cognitive and social growth

Sex

Biological Differences between males and females such as chromosomes, hormonal profiles, internal and external sex organs

Intersex

People born with ambiguous genitalia and a chromosomal expression of XXY

Gender

Social and Cultural roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Gender is the learned aspects of one’s sex while sex is the biological differences between males and females

Parental Expectations

Parents may have different expectations based on the child’s sex

Example: Encouraging boys to engage in physical play while encouraging girls to play with dolls

Peer interactions

Children often play with same sex peers leading to gender typed play styles

Example: Boys engage in more rough and tumble play while girls may engage in more cooperative play

Preferred Style of Play is generally a

personality trait

Gender Roles

Societal Norms dictate different roles for men and women

Example: Historically men have often been expected to be career focused while women have been expected to be nurturing and family oriented

Socialization

A process of learning what values, standards, and attitudes are appropriate

Sexual orientation

An individual’s sexual attraction towards members of the same sex or different sex

Gender Expression

How individuals present their gender to the world

Example: Clothing, hairstyle, mannerisms

Media Influence

Historically the media has portrayed stereotypical gender roles, although this has become more mixed in recent decades

Example: Television typically depicting women as home makers and men as career oriented

Self Concept and Self Esteem

Gender roles and expectations influence how individuals view themselves

Example: An individual may experience lower self esteem in situations that value typical male traits over female traits or vice versa

Mental Health

Gender Norms can impact mental health differently for males and females

Example: Masculine individuals may be less likely to seek help for mental health issues due to societal expectations of toughness

Primary Sex Characteristics

Traits that are directly related to reproduction

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Traits that are indirectly related to reproduction such as men having broad shoulders or women having less facial hair

Gender Schema Theory

The ability to create mental categories for masculinity and feminity. This is what helps children understand their own gender roles and will lead them to gravitate towards certain activities that align with those roles. This process also creates gender roles and stereotypes

Microsystem

Groups that have direct contact with the individual

Example: Family, school, peers, classmates, teachers

Why is the microsystem important?

The feedback, support, and even conflicts that an individual experiences here often have a major impact on the individual’s attitudes, beliefs, self esteem, behavior, and emotional well being

Mesosystem

Relationships between groups in the microsystems

Example: Parent-teacher interactions, or parents not approving of friends

Exosystems

Indirect factors in an individual’s life

Example: Parent’s workplace, community services

Macrosystems

Cultural events that affect individuals and others around them. Big picture system. Influences all other systems.