Chap 3: Biological Bases of Behaviour

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Neuroanatomy

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The study of the parts and functions of neurons

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Neurons

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<p>Individual nerve cells</p>

Individual nerve cells

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75 Terms

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Neuroanatomy

The study of the parts and functions of neurons

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Neurons

Individual nerve cells

<p>Individual nerve cells</p>
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Dendrites

  • Root-like parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body.

  • Grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons

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Cell Body (Soma)

Contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life

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Axon

Wire-like structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body

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Myelin Sheath

A fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses

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Terminal Buttons

The branched end of the axon that also contains neurotransmitters

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Neurotransmitters

  • Chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
  • Fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of neurons like a key into a lock
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Synapse

Space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron

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Receptor Sites

A place on the dendrites where neurotransmitters fit into

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Absolute Threshold

The amount of neurotransmitters needed for firing

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Action Potential

When a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body

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All-or-none principle

A neuron either fires completely or it does not fire at all

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Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Excite the next cell into firing

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Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Inhibit the next cell from firing

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Acetylcholine

  • A neurotransmitter involved in motor movement
  • Lack of acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer’s disease
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Dopamine

  • A neurotransmitter involved in motor movement and alertness
  • Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson’s disease
  • An overabundance of dopamine is associated with schizophrenia
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Endorphins

A neurotransmitter involved in pain control and addictions

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Serotonin

  • A neurotransmitter involved in mood control
  • Lack of serotonin is associated with clinical depression
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GABA

  • An important inhibitory neurotransmitter
  • Involved in seizures and sleep problems
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Glutamate

  • Excitatory neurotransmitter
  • Involved in memory, migraines, and seizures
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Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in alertness/arousal, can cause depression

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Afferent Neurons (Sensory)

Take information from senses to brain

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Interneurons

Once info reaches the brain or spinal cord, interneurons take the messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or onto efferent neurons

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Efferent Neurons (Motor)

Take information from the brain to the rest of the body

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of brain + spinal cord (all nerves encased in bones)

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Peripheral Nervous System

  • All nerves not encased in bone
  • Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
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Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements

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Autonomic Nervous System

  • Controls automatic functions of our body
  • Controls response to stress
  • Contains parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems
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Sympathetic Nervous System

  • Mobilizes body to respond to stress
  • Alert system - accelerates some functions (e.g. heartbeat) but conserves resources needed for a quick response by slowing down other functions (e.g. digestion)
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Parasympathetic Nervous System

Causes body to slow down AFTER a stress response (break pedal)

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Reflexes

Reactions that occur the moment sensory impulses reach the spinal cord

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Accidents

By observing the brain damage and behaviour after an accident, researchers can determine the functions the damaged part played in behaviour.

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Lesions

  • The removal or destruction of part of the brain
  • Observe behaviour afterwards to determine function of that part of the brain
  • Frontal Lobotomy (In the past, lesioning of frontal lobe was used to make the patients calm and relieve symptoms)
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

  • Detects brain waves
  • Examine what type of waves the brain produces during different stages of consciousness and use this information to generalize about brain function.
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Computerized Axial Tomography Scan (CAT or CT)

  • Several X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine all the pictures into a detailed 3D picture
  • Only show structure, not the functions or activity
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

  • Uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material.
  • Only show structure, not functions or activity
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

  • Shows what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks
  • Measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using
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Functional MRI (fMRI)

  • Combines elements of MRI and PET scans
  • Show details of brain structures with information about blood flow in the brain
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Hindbrain

  • Controls basic biological functions that keep us alive
  • Contains medulla, pons, and cerebellum
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Medulla

Part of hindbrain that controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

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Pons

Part of hindbrain that controls facial expressions

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Cerebellum

Part of hindbrain that coordinates habitual muscle movements

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Midbrain

Coordinates simple movements with sensory information

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Reticular Formation

A netlike connection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention

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Forebrain

  • Controls thought and reason (what makes us human)
  • Contains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus
<ul>
<li>Controls thought and reason (what makes us human) </li>
<li>Contains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus</li>
</ul>
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Thalamus

Receives the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sends them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain

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Hypothalamus

  • Metabolic functions
  • e.g. body temperature, sexual arousal (libido), hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system
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Amygdala

Vital to experiences of emotion

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Hippocampus

Processes memory to be permanently stored in other areas of the cerebral cortex

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Cerebral Cortex

  • Grey wrinkled surface of the brain (layer of densely packed neurons)
  • Contains 8 lobes, 4 in each hemisphere (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)
  • Overtime, the dendrites of the neurons grow and connect with other neurons to form the complex neural web
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Fissures

Wrinkled surface of the cerebral cortex to increase surface area

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Hemispheres

  • The two halves of the brain (right and left)
  • Theories: Left = logic and sequential tasks, Right = spatial and creative tasks
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Contralateral Control

  • LEFT hemisphere: sensory and motor functions of RIGHT half of body
  • RIGHT hemisphere: sensory and motor functions of LEFT half of body
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Brain Lateralization

  • Specialization of function in each hemisphere
  • Research is done by examining split-brain patients
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Split-brain

  • Corpus callosum is cut to treat severe epilepsy
  • Operation pioneered by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
  • Cannot orally report info only in the right hemisphere since spoken language is in the left hemisphere
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Association Area

Any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements

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Frontal Lobes

Large areas of the cerebral cortex located at the top front part of the brain behind the eyes

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Prefrontal Cortex

  • Anterior / front of frontal lobe
  • Critical role in thought directing process
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Broca’s Area (Paul Broca)

  • Frontal lobe
  • Responsible for controlling muscles involved in producing speech
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Wernicke’s Area (Carl Wernicke)

  • Temporal lobe

  • Responsible for understanding of spoken and written language

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Motor Cortex

  • Thin, vertical strip at the back of the frontal lobe
  • Sends signals to our muscles, controlling our voluntary movements
  • Top of the body is controlled by neurons at the bottom of this cortex, progressing down the body as you go up the cortex
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Parietal Lobes

  • Located behind the frontal lobe but still on the top of the brain
  • Contains the sensory cortex
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Sensory Cortex

  • A thin, vertical strip that receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of our body
  • Top of sensory cortex receives sensations from the body of the body and vice versa
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Occipital Lobes

  • At the very back of our brain, farthest from our eyes
  • Interpret messages from our eyes in our visual cortex
    • Impulses from right half of each retina are processed in the visual cortex in the right occipital lobe
    • Impulses from left half of each retina are processed in the visual cortex in the left occipital lobe
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Temporal Lobes

  • Process sound sensed by our ears (auditory cortex)
  • Sound received by either ear is processed in both auditory cortices
  • Damage to this area affects ability to interpret spoken language (Wernicke’s area)
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Brain Plasticity

The ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections.

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Endocrine System

  • A system of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies
  • Controlled by hypothalamus
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Adrenal Glands

  • Produce adrenaline
  • Signals body to prepare for fight or flight (autonomic nervous system - involuntary responses)
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Ovaries and Testes

  • Produce sex hormones
  • Levels of estrogen and testosterone may explain gender differences (Developmental Psychology)
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Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins (same genetic material)

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Thomas Bouchard

  • Studied monozygotic twins raised in different families to see if traits were nature or nurture
  • Criticized because twins share the same physical characteristics, thus causing others to treat them in similar ways (effective psychological environment).
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Turner’s Syndrome

Single X chromosome instead of a 23rd pair

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Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Extra X chromosome, thus XXY pattern

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Down Syndrome

Extra chromosome on 21st pair