Anthropology Final Exam Study Cards

Ethnology

Ethnology

• Study of different cultures and societies

• Focuses on understanding human behavior and social structures

• Involves fieldwork and participant observation

• Aims to document and analyze cultural diversity

• Helps in promoting cross-cultural understanding

Forensic Anthropology

• Forensic anthropology applies physical anthropology principles

• Helps identify human remains

• Determines age, sex, ancestry, and stature

• Assists in establishing the cause of death

• Involves analyzing skeletal remains

• Utilizes techniques like DNA analysis

• Provides crucial evidence in criminal investigations

Archeology

• Study of human history through material culture

• Involves excavation, analysis, and interpretation of artifacts

• Helps understand past societies, cultures, and behaviors

• Methods include radiocarbon dating, stratigraphy, and remote sensing

• Important sites include Pompeii, Stonehenge, and Machu Picchu

Medical Anthropology

• Ethnomedicine: Cultural beliefs and practices related to health

• Biocultural approach: Studying the interaction of biology and culture in health

• Medical pluralism: Coexistence of multiple medical systems in a society

• Cultural competence: Understanding and respecting diverse health beliefs

• Global health disparities: Inequalities in health outcomes worldwide

Cultural Anthropologists

• Study human behavior in diverse cultural contexts

• Analyze cultural beliefs, practices, and social structures

• Conduct fieldwork to understand cultural dynamics

• Use ethnographic methods to collect data

• Apply anthropological theories to interpret cultural phenomena

Archeologist

• Fieldwork: Excavation, surveying, artifact analysis

• Research: Historical context, cultural significance

• Tools: Trowel, brush, sieve, GPS

• Skills: Observation, critical thinking, attention to detail

• Education: Degree in archaeology or related field

Language

• Phonetics: study of speech sounds

• Syntax: rules for sentence structure

• Semantics: study of meaning in language

• Pragmatics: language use in context

Franz Boas

• Known as the "Father of American Anthropology"

• Emphasized cultural relativism

• Advocated for fieldwork and ethnography

• Criticized scientific racism

• Developed historical particularism theory

Ethnographic Fieldwork

• Participant observation: Immersing in the culture

• Building rapport: Establishing trust with participants

• Reflexivity: Reflecting on biases and assumptions

• Data collection: Gathering information through interviews, surveys

• Ethical considerations: Respecting privacy and consent

Society and Culture

• Society and culture are interconnected concepts

• Society refers to a group of people sharing a common territory

• Culture encompasses beliefs, customs, and traditions

• Culture shapes societal norms and behaviors

• Understanding society and culture aids in social analysis

Enculturation

• Definition: Process of learning and adopting the norms, values, and behaviors of one's culture

• Importance: Shapes individual identity, social interactions, and worldview

• Methods: Observation, imitation, participation in cultural activities

• Factors: Family, peers, media, education

• Impact: Influences beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors throughout life

Pluralism

• Definition: Coexistence of multiple groups with diverse beliefs

• Importance: Promotes tolerance and understanding

• Types: Religious, cultural, political

• Benefits: Encourages dialogue and cooperation

• Challenges: Struggles for power and dominance

Adaptation

• Adaptation refers to the process by which organisms adjust to their environment

• It involves changes in behavior, physiology, or structure to enhance survival and reproduction

• Adaptations can be structural (physical features), behavioral (actions), or physiological (internal processes)

• Natural selection plays a key role in shaping adaptations over generations

• Adaptations are specific to the environmental challenges faced by a species

Cultural Relativism

• Definition: Cultural relativism is the belief that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture.

• Importance: Promotes tolerance, understanding, and respect for diverse cultures.

• Criticisms: Can lead to moral relativism and justify harmful practices.

Enthnocentrism

• Definition: Belief in the superiority of one's own cultural group

• Examples: Judging other cultures based on own cultural norms

• Impact: Can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and conflict

• Cultural relativism: Understanding and respecting other cultures

• Sociological perspective: Studying how ethnocentrism affects societies

Pluralistic

• Diversity of cultures, religions, and ethnicities

• Coexistence and tolerance of different beliefs

• Emphasis on equality and respect for all groups

• Challenges include social cohesion and integration

• Promotes multiculturalism and acceptance of differences

Male Dominance

• Patriarchy: Social system where men hold primary power

• Gender roles: Societal expectations for behavior based on gender

• Gender pay gap: Discrepancy in earnings between men and women

• Glass ceiling: Invisible barrier preventing women from advancing

• Toxic masculinity: Harmful behaviors associated with traditional masculinity

Regulations or Taboos surrounding sexual activity

• Age of consent laws: Legal age for sexual activity

• Incest laws: Prohibition of sexual relations between close relatives

• Public indecency laws: Restrictions on sexual behavior in public

• Prostitution laws: Regulation or prohibition of selling sexual services

• Bestiality laws: Prohibition of sexual acts with animals

Indigenous Peoples

• Indigenous Peoples have distinct cultures, languages, and traditions

• They face challenges such as land rights issues and cultural preservation

• Indigenous knowledge is valuable for environmental conservation

• Indigenous Peoples have a deep connection to their land and natural resources

• Recognition of Indigenous rights is crucial for social justice

Advocate

• Advocate: Supports and speaks on behalf of others

• Skills: Communication, empathy, problem-solving

• Responsibilities: Representing interests, providing information, offering support

• Settings: Legal, healthcare, social services

• Qualifications: Education, training, certification

Study Up

• Active recall: Retrieving information from memory

• Spaced repetition: Reviewing material at increasing intervals

• Interleaved practice: Mixing different topics during study sessions

• Elaborative interrogation: Asking "why" questions about the material

• Self-explanation: Explaining concepts in your own words

Participant Observation

• Definition: Research method in anthropology

• Role of researcher: Actively participate in group being studied

• Data collection: Observations, interviews, field notes

• Advantages: Rich, detailed data; insights into cultural practices

• Disadvantages: Bias, lack of objectivity, time-consuming

Challenges of Anthropologists

• Cultural relativism: Understanding cultures on their own terms

• Ethical considerations: Respecting the rights and beliefs of studied communities

• Language barriers: Overcoming communication challenges in fieldwork

• Bias and subjectivity: Acknowledging personal perspectives in research

• Access to communities: Building trust and gaining entry for study

Annette Weiner’s research with the Trobriands

• Research focus: Gender roles and power dynamics

• Methodology: Participant observation

• Key findings: Women's economic and social importance

• Impact: Challenged traditional anthropological views

Matrilineal

• Inheritance and descent traced through female line

• Found in societies like Minangkabau in Indonesia

• Women often hold significant social and economic power

• Matrilineal societies can vary in practices and customs

Pork Theory

• Marvin Harris

• Pork taboo

• Cultural materialism

• Food habits

• Anthropological theories

Anthropologists and Mapping

• Importance of mapping in anthropology: aids in research design and data visualization

• Types of mapping techniques: GIS, GPS, remote sensing

• Anthropological uses of mapping: studying human-environment interactions, cultural landscapes

• Ethical considerations in mapping: consent, privacy, indigenous knowledge protection

Multi Sited ethnography

• Definition: Study of a phenomenon across multiple sites

• Methods: Participant observation, interviews, document analysis

• Benefits: Provides holistic understanding, captures complexity

• Challenges: Time-consuming, requires extensive resources

• Examples: Global supply chains, migration patterns

Etic

• Definition: Approach in anthropology using outsider perspective

• Emphasizes objectivity and universality

• Focuses on observable behaviors and data

• Often used in cross-cultural studies

• Criticized for potential cultural insensitivity

Emic

• Emic: Insider's perspective

• Focuses on meanings and interpretations by participants

• Helps understand cultural context deeply

• Provides rich and detailed insights

• Enhances cultural sensitivity and empathy

Primatologists

• Study of primates

• Behavior, ecology, evolution

• Fieldwork, observation, data collection

• Conservation efforts

• Communication, social structures

• Cognitive abilities, tool use

• Primatology societies, conferences

• Research methods, technology

• Primate species diversity

• Human-primate interactions

Species

• Definition: A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

• Classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

• Binomial nomenclature: Genus species (italicized)

• Evolution: Species evolve over time through natural selection

• Biodiversity: Species diversity is crucial for ecosystem health

Diurnal

• Definition: Active during the day

• Examples: Humans, squirrels, bees

• Adaptations: Enhanced vision, color vision

• Behavior: Sleep at night, hunt or forage during the day

• Importance: Energy efficiency, predator avoidance

Color Vision

• Trichromatic theory: Three types of cones (red, green, blue)

• Opponent-process theory: Color vision based on opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white)

• Color blindness: Inability to distinguish certain colors

• Ishihara test: Common test for color blindness

• Color constancy: Perceived color of an object remains constant under different lighting conditions

Binocular Vision

• Definition: Ability to merge two different images into one

• Importance: Depth perception, 3D vision

• Mechanism: Brain combines images from both eyes

• Disorders: Strabismus, Amblyopia

• Development: Begins in infancy, matures by age 7

Stereoscopic Vision

• Depth perception: Ability to perceive 3D depth

• Binocular disparity: Differences in images seen by each eye

• Convergence: Eyes turning inward to focus on near objects

• Retinal disparity: Images falling on non-corresponding points on retinas

• Fusion: Brain combining images from both eyes

Opposability in hands and feet

• Hands and feet have opposable thumbs

• Opposable thumbs allow grasping and manipulating objects

• Opposability is a key feature in primates

• Opposable thumbs provide precision and dexterity

• Opposability enhances tool use and fine motor skills

Chimpanzees hunting

• Chimpanzees hunt in groups

• They use tools like sticks and rocks

• Prey includes monkeys, birds, and small mammals

• Hunting behavior varies among populations

• Hunting is more common in males than females

Louis Leakey

• Renowned British archaeologist and paleoanthropologist

• Discovered important fossil evidence in Africa

• Advocated for the study of human evolution in Africa

• Established the Leakey Foundation to support research

• Mentored and supported prominent researchers like Jane Goodall

Australopithecus Lucy

• Discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia

• Lived around 3.2 million years ago

• Believed to be a female

• Nicknamed "Lucy" after the Beatles song

• Provided important insights into human evolution

Genus Homo

• Homo sapiens: Modern humans

• Homo neanderthalensis: Neanderthals

• Homo erectus: "Upright man"

• Homo habilis: "Handy man"

• Homo floresiensis: "Hobbit" species

• Homo naledi: Recently discovered species

Manual dexterity or “having hands free for tool use”.

• Importance: Enables tool use and complex tasks

• Definition: Ability to manipulate objects with hands

• Evolutionary advantage: Led to development of technology

• Examples: Humans, primates, some bird species

H. Erectus

• Time period: 1.9 million to 143,000 years ago

• Geographic range: Africa, Asia, Europe

• Cranial capacity: 600-1250 cc

• Use of fire: Evidence of controlled use

• Tools: Acheulean handaxes, cleavers

• Social behavior: Evidence of group living

Neanderthals

• Lived in Europe and parts of Asia

• Had large brains and robust bodies

• Used tools and controlled fire

• Buried their dead with rituals

• Interacted with Homo sapiens

• Extinct around 40,000 years ago

Homo sapiens appeared

• Key Event: Homo sapiens appeared

• Location: Africa

• Time Period: Around 300,000 years ago

• Characteristics: Advanced cognitive abilities, tool usage, language development

• Impact: Dominated other hominid species, spread globally

 Adult bonobos

• Bonobos are one of the closest relatives to humans

• They are known for their peaceful and matriarchal society

• Adult bonobos are highly social and form strong bonds

• They use various vocalizations and body language to communicate

• Bonobos are found in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Jane Goodall

• Accomplishments: Pioneering primatologist

• Research: Groundbreaking work with chimpanzees

• Conservation: Advocate for wildlife and habitat protection

• Roots: Founded the Jane Goodall Institute

• Honors: Numerous awards for her contributions

Mutations

• Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence.

• Mutations can be caused by various factors such as UV radiation, chemicals, or errors during DNA replication.

• Mutations can be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect on an organism.

• Mutations can occur in somatic cells or germ cells.

• Mutations in germ cells can be passed on to offspring.

• Mutations are the raw material for evolution.

Symbols

• Symbols are representations of ideas or concepts

• They can be words, images, gestures, or objects

• Symbols convey meaning beyond their literal interpretation

• They are used in language, art, religion, and communication

• Symbols can have cultural, social, or personal significance

 Languages

• There are approximately 7,117 languages spoken in the world today

• The most spoken language in the world is Mandarin Chinese

• English is the most widely spoken second language

• The language with the most native speakers is Spanish

• The language with the most words is English

Signals

• Signals are used by animals to communicate information

• They can be visual, auditory, olfactory, or tactile

• Signals can convey warnings, mating availability, or territory boundaries

Phonetics

• Consonants: Sounds produced by obstructing airflow

• Vowels: Sounds produced without obstruction

• IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet for representing sounds

• Articulation: Manner in which speech sounds are produced

• Phonemes: Smallest units of sound that can change meaning

Core vocabulary

• Core vocabulary:

  • Small set of high-frequency words

  • Essential for communication

  • Used across different contexts

  • Typically concrete and easily representable

  • Acquired early in language development

Linguistics

• Study of language

• Phonetics, syntax, semantics

• Historical development

• Sociolinguistics

• Language acquisition

• Dialectology

Grammar as taught by English teachers

• Parts of speech: Noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection

• Sentence structure: Subject, verb, object

• Tenses: Present, past, future

• Agreement: Subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement

• Punctuation: Period, comma, apostrophe, question mark, exclamation point

Glottochronology

• Developed in 1950s by Morris Swadesh

• Estimates time depth of language divergence

• Based on assumption of constant rate of vocabulary replacement

• Controversial due to various factors influencing vocabulary change

• Used in historical linguistics to study language evolution

Phoneme

• Definition: Smallest unit of sound in a language

• Role: Differentiates meaning between words

• Examples: /p/ and /b/ in "pat" and "bat"

• Study: Phonology in linguistics

• Importance: Fundamental to language acquisition

Chantek, the orangutan

• Species: Sumatran orangutan

• Trained in sign language

• Lived at Zoo Atlanta

• Known for his intelligence

• Studied by researchers

• Passed away in 2017

Gestures

• Types: emblematic, illustrative, deictic

• Functions: regulate conversation, emphasize speech, substitute words

• Cultural differences: meanings vary across cultures

• Universality: some gestures are understood globally

• Importance: complement verbal communication

Linguistic nationalism

• Language used to promote national identity

• Emphasizes importance of native language

• Can lead to discrimination against minority languages

• Used in politics, education, and media

• Can influence language policies and attitudes

Ethnolinguistics

• Studies relationship between language and culture

• Analyzes how language shapes cultural identity

• Explores how culture influences language

• Examines language variation within societies

• Focuses on social aspects of language use

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf

• Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf

  • Proposed linguistic relativity hypothesis

  • Language shapes perception and thought

  • Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has strong and weak versions

  • Influence on fields like psychology, anthropology

  • Controversial theory in linguistics

Dialect

• Definition: Form of a language spoken in a particular region

• Features: Pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar

• Types: Regional, social, ethnic

• Influence: Culture, history, geography

• Examples: American English, British English

Chimpanzee Vicki

• Chimpanzee Vicki was raised as a human child

• She was taught to use sign language

• Vicki's ability to learn language was limited

• Her case highlighted challenges in teaching language to non-human primates

Lower position of the larynx and epiglottis.

• Larynx: Lower position increases vocal range and resonance

• Epiglottis: Lower position aids in swallowing and prevents food from entering the airway

Alphabets today descended from the system created by the____

• Phoenicians

• Greeks

• Romans

• Latin script

• English alphabet

Tabula rasa

• Tabula rasa is the theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content.

• It suggests that the mind is a "blank slate" at birth, shaped by experience.

• This concept is often attributed to philosopher John Locke.

• Tabula rasa implies that knowledge comes from sensory experience and perception.

• It contrasts with the idea of innate knowledge or ideas.

Agents of enculturation

• Agents of enculturation:

  • Family: Primary socializing agent

  • Education system: Formal transmission of culture

  • Media: Shapes beliefs and values

  • Peer groups: Influence behavior and attitudes

  • Religion: Provides moral guidance

Industrialized countries develop self-awareness by around age two.

• Children start recognizing themselves in the mirror

• They use personal pronouns like "I" and "me"

• Begin to understand their own emotions and desires

• Develop a sense of autonomy and independence

• Show self-conscious emotions like pride and embarrassment

First Laugh Ceremony

• Navajo tradition

• Celebrates baby's first laugh

• Important milestone

• Family and community gather

• Baby receives gifts and blessings

An individual’s personality comes from these...

Genetics: Influence inherited traits

• Environment: Shapes behavior and attitudes

• Culture: Impacts beliefs and values

• Socialization: Learning norms and customs

• Experiences: Mold perceptions and reactions

Coming of Age in Samoa, published in 1928.

• Author: Margaret Mead

• Study conducted in American Samoa

• Challenges Western views on adolescence

• Argues culture shapes behavior

• Emphasizes impact of environment on development

Dependence training

• Focuses on teaching individuals to rely on others for support

• Emphasizes building trust and interdependence in relationships

• Commonly used in therapy and counseling settings

• Aims to improve communication and emotional connections

• Helps individuals develop healthy boundaries and coping mechanisms

Tests which are valid and reliable in one cultural setting may not be valid or reliable in another culture.

• Children start to recognize themselves in the mirror around 18 months old

• They begin to use personal pronouns like "I" and "me" around age two

• Self-awareness allows children to understand their own emotions and thoughts

• Developing self-awareness is crucial for social interactions and relationships

Studies of national character

• National character studies focus on identifying unique traits of a specific country's population

• Researchers use various methods like surveys, interviews, and observations to study national character

• These studies aim to understand cultural values, beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes of a nation

• National character can influence politics, economics, social interactions, and overall development

• Not all scholars agree on the concept of national character due to its complexity and potential for stereotypes

Francis Hsu and cultural core values--example--US and rugged individualism.

• Francis Hsu:

  • Anthropologist known for his work on cultural values

  • Studied cultural differences in child-rearing practices

  • Emphasized the importance of cultural context in shaping behavior

• Cultural Core Values in the US:

  • Rugged individualism

  • Equality

  • Freedom

  • Democracy

Normative orientation

• Emphasizes conformity to societal norms

• Focuses on following rules and guidelines

• Encourages adherence to established standards

 Ethnic psychosis

• Definition: Mental disorder triggered by cultural conflicts

• Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, paranoia

• Risk factors: Immigration, discrimination, acculturation stress

• Treatment: Culturally sensitive therapy, medication

• Prognosis: Better outcomes with early intervention

Cultural adaptation

• Cultural adaptation involves adjusting to a new culture

• It includes learning new customs, values, and behaviors

• Adaptation can be challenging but leads to better integration

• Understanding cultural nuances is crucial for successful adaptation

Ecosystem/culture Biocultural Connection Surviving in the Andes

• Andean people's survival linked to ecosystem

• Dependence on agriculture, livestock, and natural resources

• Cultural practices shaped by environment

• Connection between biodiversity and cultural diversity

Redistribution

• Definition: Redistribution involves the transfer of wealth, income, or resources from some individuals to others.

• Types: Progressive taxation, welfare programs, subsidies, and public services.

• Goals: Reduce income inequality, alleviate poverty, and promote social justice.

• Impact: Can lead to economic growth, social stability, and improved well-being for disadvantaged groups.

Culture change

• Definition: Transformation of beliefs, values, and behaviors within an organization

• Drivers: Leadership support, employee involvement, clear communication

• Benefits: Improved morale, increased productivity, enhanced innovation

• Challenges: Resistance to change, lack of alignment, cultural clashes

Parallel evolution

• Definition: Independent evolution of similar traits in unrelated species

• Examples: Marsupial mammals in Australia, cacti in Americas

• Mechanism: Similar environmental pressures lead to convergent evolution

• Importance: Provides insights into evolutionary processes

• Study methods: Comparative genomics, fossil records

Culture core

• Values and beliefs: Shape behavior and decision-making

• Norms and customs: Define acceptable behavior

• Symbols and rituals: Represent shared meanings

• Language and communication: Facilitate interaction

• Social structure: Organizes relationships and roles

Food foraging and their lifestyle

• Hunter-gatherers rely on foraging for food

• Foraging involves gathering wild plants, fruits, nuts, and seeds

• Hunter-gatherer societies are nomadic

• Foragers also hunt wild animals for food

• Foraging lifestyle is characterized by small, mobile groups

Farming

• Agricultural revolution marked shift from hunter-gatherer to farming societies

• Farming led to surplus food, population growth, settlements

• Domestication of plants and animals crucial for farming

• Different farming methods developed worldwide

• Farming practices impact environment, economy, and culture

Pastoralism

• Pastoralism is a form of agriculture

• It involves raising livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats

• Pastoralists are nomadic or semi-nomadic

• Common in arid and semi-arid regions

• Provides livelihood for millions of people worldwide

Carrying capacity

• Definition: Maximum population size an environment can sustain

• Influenced by: Availability of resources, space, predation, disease

• Factors affecting: Birth rate, death rate, immigration, emigration

• Importance: Helps in understanding ecosystem dynamics

• Ecological balance: Maintaining carrying capacity crucial for sustainability

 Carrying cultural limit

• Cultural limits shape behavior

• Influence from societal norms

• Impact on individual actions

• Defines acceptable conduct

• Varies across cultures

Urbanization

• Concentration of population in cities

• Development of infrastructure and services

• Growth of industries and commerce

• Social and cultural changes

• Impact on environment and resources

Slash-and-burn agriculture

• Slash-and-burn agriculture:

  • Traditional farming method

  • Involves cutting and burning of forests

  • Nutrients from burnt vegetation enrich soil

  • Sustainable if land left fallow

  • Can lead to deforestation and soil degradation

Is change always progress?

• Change can be positive or negative

• Progress is subjective

• Change can lead to regression

• Progress implies improvement

• Change can disrupt stability

Economic system

• Economic system determines how resources are allocated

• Types include traditional, command, market, mixed

• Influences production, distribution, consumption

• Impacts employment, wealth distribution, economic growth

Kenya’s first president

• Jomo Kenyatta was Kenya's first president

• He led the country to independence from British colonial rule

• Kenyatta played a key role in shaping Kenya's political landscape

• His presidency focused on nation-building and economic development

• Kenyatta's leadership legacy continues to influence Kenyan politics

gender division of labor

• Gender division of labor:

  • Definition: Assigning tasks based on gender norms

  • Historical context: Rooted in traditional societies

  • Impact: Reinforces gender stereotypes

  • Modern challenges: Advocacy for gender equality

  • Examples: Women in caregiving, men in leadership roles

Cooperative work groups

• Defined as a group of individuals working together towards a common goal

• Encourages collaboration, communication, and shared responsibility

• Members contribute diverse skills and perspectives

• Enhances problem-solving and decision-making abilities

• Fosters creativity and innovation

Conspicuous consumption

• Coined by economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen

• Refers to the public display of wealth to gain social status

• Often involves purchasing luxury goods and services

• Seen as a form of social signaling and competition

• Criticized for promoting materialism and inequality

leveling mechanism

• Leveling mechanism:

  • Used in games to advance characters

  • Players gain experience points to level up

  • Unlocks new abilities or items

  • Provides a sense of achievement and progress

Cultural adaptation

• Understanding local customs and traditions: Respect cultural norms

• Language proficiency: Learn the local language

• Cultural sensitivity: Be aware of cultural differences

• Flexibility: Adapt to new ways of doing things

• Open-mindedness: Embrace diversity and new perspectives

Ecosystem/culture Biocultural Connection Surviving in the Andes

• Andean people have developed unique agricultural practices

• Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants is crucial for survival

• Indigenous communities in the Andes rely on llama and alpaca herding

• Quinoa and potatoes are staple crops in the Andean diet

• Cultural practices are intertwined with the surrounding ecosystem

Ecosystem/culture Biocultural Connection Surviving in the Andes