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Ethnology
Ethnology
Study of different cultures and societies
Focuses on understanding human behavior and social structures
Involves fieldwork and participant observation
Aims to document and analyze cultural diversity
Helps in promoting cross-cultural understanding
Forensic Anthropology
Forensic anthropology applies physical anthropology principles
Helps identify human remains
Determines age, sex, ancestry, and stature
Assists in establishing the cause of death
Involves analyzing skeletal remains
Utilizes techniques like DNA analysis
Provides crucial evidence in criminal investigations
Archeology
Study of human history through material culture
Involves excavation, analysis, and interpretation of artifacts
Helps understand past societies, cultures, and behaviors
Methods include radiocarbon dating, stratigraphy, and remote sensing
Important sites include Pompeii, Stonehenge, and Machu Picchu
Medical Anthropology
Ethnomedicine: Cultural beliefs and practices related to health
Biocultural approach: Studying the interaction of biology and culture in health
Medical pluralism: Coexistence of multiple medical systems in a society
Cultural competence: Understanding and respecting diverse health beliefs
Global health disparities: Inequalities in health outcomes worldwide
Cultural Anthropologists
Study human behavior in diverse cultural contexts
Analyze cultural beliefs, practices, and social structures
Conduct fieldwork to understand cultural dynamics
Use ethnographic methods to collect data
Apply anthropological theories to interpret cultural phenomena
Archeologist
Fieldwork: Excavation, surveying, artifact analysis
Research: Historical context, cultural significance
Tools: Trowel, brush, sieve, GPS
Skills: Observation, critical thinking, attention to detail
Education: Degree in archaeology or related field
Language
Phonetics: study of speech sounds
Syntax: rules for sentence structure
Semantics: study of meaning in language
Pragmatics: language use in context
Franz Boas
Known as the "Father of American Anthropology"
Emphasized cultural relativism
Advocated for fieldwork and ethnography
Criticized scientific racism
Developed historical particularism theory
Ethnographic Fieldwork
Participant observation: Immersing in the culture
Building rapport: Establishing trust with participants
Reflexivity: Reflecting on biases and assumptions
Data collection: Gathering information through interviews, surveys
Ethical considerations: Respecting privacy and consent
Society and Culture
Society and culture are interconnected concepts
Society refers to a group of people sharing a common territory
Culture encompasses beliefs, customs, and traditions
Culture shapes societal norms and behaviors
Understanding society and culture aids in social analysis
Enculturation
Definition: Process of learning and adopting the norms, values, and behaviors of one's culture
Importance: Shapes individual identity, social interactions, and worldview
Methods: Observation, imitation, participation in cultural activities
Factors: Family, peers, media, education
Impact: Influences beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors throughout life
Pluralism
Definition: Coexistence of multiple groups with diverse beliefs
Importance: Promotes tolerance and understanding
Types: Religious, cultural, political
Benefits: Encourages dialogue and cooperation
Challenges: Struggles for power and dominance
Adaptation
Adaptation refers to the process by which organisms adjust to their environment
It involves changes in behavior, physiology, or structure to enhance survival and reproduction
Adaptations can be structural (physical features), behavioral (actions), or physiological (internal processes)
Natural selection plays a key role in shaping adaptations over generations
Adaptations are specific to the environmental challenges faced by a species
Cultural Relativism
Definition: Cultural relativism is the belief that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture.
Importance: Promotes tolerance, understanding, and respect for diverse cultures.
Criticisms: Can lead to moral relativism and justify harmful practices.
Enthnocentrism
Definition: Belief in the superiority of one's own cultural group
Examples: Judging other cultures based on own cultural norms
Impact: Can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and conflict
Cultural relativism: Understanding and respecting other cultures
Sociological perspective: Studying how ethnocentrism affects societies
Pluralistic
Diversity of cultures, religions, and ethnicities
Coexistence and tolerance of different beliefs
Emphasis on equality and respect for all groups
Challenges include social cohesion and integration
Promotes multiculturalism and acceptance of differences
Male Dominance
Patriarchy: Social system where men hold primary power
Gender roles: Societal expectations for behavior based on gender
Gender pay gap: Discrepancy in earnings between men and women
Glass ceiling: Invisible barrier preventing women from advancing
Toxic masculinity: Harmful behaviors associated with traditional masculinity
Regulations or Taboos surrounding sexual activity
Age of consent laws: Legal age for sexual activity
Incest laws: Prohibition of sexual relations between close relatives
Public indecency laws: Restrictions on sexual behavior in public
Prostitution laws: Regulation or prohibition of selling sexual services
Bestiality laws: Prohibition of sexual acts with animals
Indigenous Peoples
Indigenous Peoples have distinct cultures, languages, and traditions
They face challenges such as land rights issues and cultural preservation
Indigenous knowledge is valuable for environmental conservation
Indigenous Peoples have a deep connection to their land and natural resources
Recognition of Indigenous rights is crucial for social justice
Advocate
Advocate: Supports and speaks on behalf of others
Skills: Communication, empathy, problem-solving
Responsibilities: Representing interests, providing information, offering support
Settings: Legal, healthcare, social services
Qualifications: Education, training, certification
Study Up
Active recall: Retrieving information from memory
Spaced repetition: Reviewing material at increasing intervals
Interleaved practice: Mixing different topics during study sessions
Elaborative interrogation: Asking "why" questions about the material
Self-explanation: Explaining concepts in your own words
Participant Observation
Definition: Research method in anthropology
Role of researcher: Actively participate in group being studied
Data collection: Observations, interviews, field notes
Advantages: Rich, detailed data; insights into cultural practices
Disadvantages: Bias, lack of objectivity, time-consuming
Challenges of Anthropologists
Cultural relativism: Understanding cultures on their own terms
Ethical considerations: Respecting the rights and beliefs of studied communities
Language barriers: Overcoming communication challenges in fieldwork
Bias and subjectivity: Acknowledging personal perspectives in research
Access to communities: Building trust and gaining entry for study
Annette Weiner’s research with the Trobriands
Research focus: Gender roles and power dynamics
Methodology: Participant observation
Key findings: Women's economic and social importance
Impact: Challenged traditional anthropological views
Matrilineal
Inheritance and descent traced through female line
Found in societies like Minangkabau in Indonesia
Women often hold significant social and economic power
Matrilineal societies can vary in practices and customs
Pork Theory
Marvin Harris
Pork taboo
Cultural materialism
Food habits
Anthropological theories
Anthropologists and Mapping
Importance of mapping in anthropology: aids in research design and data visualization
Types of mapping techniques: GIS, GPS, remote sensing
Anthropological uses of mapping: studying human-environment interactions, cultural landscapes
Ethical considerations in mapping: consent, privacy, indigenous knowledge protection
Multi Sited ethnography
Definition: Study of a phenomenon across multiple sites
Methods: Participant observation, interviews, document analysis
Benefits: Provides holistic understanding, captures complexity
Challenges: Time-consuming, requires extensive resources
Examples: Global supply chains, migration patterns
Etic
Definition: Approach in anthropology using outsider perspective
Emphasizes objectivity and universality
Focuses on observable behaviors and data
Often used in cross-cultural studies
Criticized for potential cultural insensitivity
Emic
Emic: Insider's perspective
Focuses on meanings and interpretations by participants
Helps understand cultural context deeply
Provides rich and detailed insights
Enhances cultural sensitivity and empathy
Primatologists
Study of primates
Behavior, ecology, evolution
Fieldwork, observation, data collection
Conservation efforts
Communication, social structures
Cognitive abilities, tool use
Primatology societies, conferences
Research methods, technology
Primate species diversity
Human-primate interactions
Species
Definition: A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Binomial nomenclature: Genus species (italicized)
Evolution: Species evolve over time through natural selection
Biodiversity: Species diversity is crucial for ecosystem health
Diurnal
Definition: Active during the day
Examples: Humans, squirrels, bees
Adaptations: Enhanced vision, color vision
Behavior: Sleep at night, hunt or forage during the day
Importance: Energy efficiency, predator avoidance
Color Vision
Trichromatic theory: Three types of cones (red, green, blue)
Opponent-process theory: Color vision based on opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white)
Color blindness: Inability to distinguish certain colors
Ishihara test: Common test for color blindness
Color constancy: Perceived color of an object remains constant under different lighting conditions
Binocular Vision
Definition: Ability to merge two different images into one
Importance: Depth perception, 3D vision
Mechanism: Brain combines images from both eyes
Disorders: Strabismus, Amblyopia
Development: Begins in infancy, matures by age 7
Stereoscopic Vision
Depth perception: Ability to perceive 3D depth
Binocular disparity: Differences in images seen by each eye
Convergence: Eyes turning inward to focus on near objects
Retinal disparity: Images falling on non-corresponding points on retinas
Fusion: Brain combining images from both eyes
Opposability in hands and feet
Hands and feet have opposable thumbs
Opposable thumbs allow grasping and manipulating objects
Opposability is a key feature in primates
Opposable thumbs provide precision and dexterity
Opposability enhances tool use and fine motor skills
Chimpanzees hunting
Chimpanzees hunt in groups
They use tools like sticks and rocks
Prey includes monkeys, birds, and small mammals
Hunting behavior varies among populations
Hunting is more common in males than females
Louis Leakey
Renowned British archaeologist and paleoanthropologist
Discovered important fossil evidence in Africa
Advocated for the study of human evolution in Africa
Established the Leakey Foundation to support research
Mentored and supported prominent researchers like Jane Goodall
Australopithecus Lucy
Discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia
Lived around 3.2 million years ago
Believed to be a female
Nicknamed "Lucy" after the Beatles song
Provided important insights into human evolution
Genus Homo
Homo sapiens: Modern humans
Homo neanderthalensis: Neanderthals
Homo erectus: "Upright man"
Homo habilis: "Handy man"
Homo floresiensis: "Hobbit" species
Homo naledi: Recently discovered species
Manual dexterity or “having hands free for tool use”.
Importance: Enables tool use and complex tasks
Definition: Ability to manipulate objects with hands
Evolutionary advantage: Led to development of technology
Examples: Humans, primates, some bird species
H. Erectus
Time period: 1.9 million to 143,000 years ago
Geographic range: Africa, Asia, Europe
Cranial capacity: 600-1250 cc
Use of fire: Evidence of controlled use
Tools: Acheulean handaxes, cleavers
Social behavior: Evidence of group living
Neanderthals
Lived in Europe and parts of Asia
Had large brains and robust bodies
Used tools and controlled fire
Buried their dead with rituals
Interacted with Homo sapiens
Extinct around 40,000 years ago
Homo sapiens appeared
Key Event: Homo sapiens appeared
Location: Africa
Time Period: Around 300,000 years ago
Characteristics: Advanced cognitive abilities, tool usage, language development
Impact: Dominated other hominid species, spread globally
Adult bonobos
Bonobos are one of the closest relatives to humans
They are known for their peaceful and matriarchal society
Adult bonobos are highly social and form strong bonds
They use various vocalizations and body language to communicate
Bonobos are found in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Jane Goodall
Accomplishments: Pioneering primatologist
Research: Groundbreaking work with chimpanzees
Conservation: Advocate for wildlife and habitat protection
Roots: Founded the Jane Goodall Institute
Honors: Numerous awards for her contributions
Mutations
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence.
Mutations can be caused by various factors such as UV radiation, chemicals, or errors during DNA replication.
Mutations can be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect on an organism.
Mutations can occur in somatic cells or germ cells.
Mutations in germ cells can be passed on to offspring.
Mutations are the raw material for evolution.
Symbols
Symbols are representations of ideas or concepts
They can be words, images, gestures, or objects
Symbols convey meaning beyond their literal interpretation
They are used in language, art, religion, and communication
Symbols can have cultural, social, or personal significance
Languages
There are approximately 7,117 languages spoken in the world today
The most spoken language in the world is Mandarin Chinese
English is the most widely spoken second language
The language with the most native speakers is Spanish
The language with the most words is English
Signals
Signals are used by animals to communicate information
They can be visual, auditory, olfactory, or tactile
Signals can convey warnings, mating availability, or territory boundaries
Phonetics
Consonants: Sounds produced by obstructing airflow
Vowels: Sounds produced without obstruction
IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet for representing sounds
Articulation: Manner in which speech sounds are produced
Phonemes: Smallest units of sound that can change meaning
Core vocabulary
Core vocabulary:
Small set of high-frequency words
Essential for communication
Used across different contexts
Typically concrete and easily representable
Acquired early in language development
Linguistics
Study of language
Phonetics, syntax, semantics
Historical development
Sociolinguistics
Language acquisition
Dialectology
Grammar as taught by English teachers
Parts of speech: Noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection
Sentence structure: Subject, verb, object
Tenses: Present, past, future
Agreement: Subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement
Punctuation: Period, comma, apostrophe, question mark, exclamation point
Glottochronology
Developed in 1950s by Morris Swadesh
Estimates time depth of language divergence
Based on assumption of constant rate of vocabulary replacement
Controversial due to various factors influencing vocabulary change
Used in historical linguistics to study language evolution
Phoneme
Definition: Smallest unit of sound in a language
Role: Differentiates meaning between words
Examples: /p/ and /b/ in "pat" and "bat"
Study: Phonology in linguistics
Importance: Fundamental to language acquisition
Chantek, the orangutan
Species: Sumatran orangutan
Trained in sign language
Lived at Zoo Atlanta
Known for his intelligence
Studied by researchers
Passed away in 2017
Gestures
Types: emblematic, illustrative, deictic
Functions: regulate conversation, emphasize speech, substitute words
Cultural differences: meanings vary across cultures
Universality: some gestures are understood globally
Importance: complement verbal communication
Linguistic nationalism
Language used to promote national identity
Emphasizes importance of native language
Can lead to discrimination against minority languages
Used in politics, education, and media
Can influence language policies and attitudes
Ethnolinguistics
Studies relationship between language and culture
Analyzes how language shapes cultural identity
Explores how culture influences language
Examines language variation within societies
Focuses on social aspects of language use
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf
Proposed linguistic relativity hypothesis
Language shapes perception and thought
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has strong and weak versions
Influence on fields like psychology, anthropology
Controversial theory in linguistics
Dialect
Definition: Form of a language spoken in a particular region
Features: Pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar
Types: Regional, social, ethnic
Influence: Culture, history, geography
Examples: American English, British English
Chimpanzee Vicki
Chimpanzee Vicki was raised as a human child
She was taught to use sign language
Vicki's ability to learn language was limited
Her case highlighted challenges in teaching language to non-human primates
Lower position of the larynx and epiglottis.
Larynx: Lower position increases vocal range and resonance
Epiglottis: Lower position aids in swallowing and prevents food from entering the airway
Alphabets today descended from the system created by the____
Phoenicians
Greeks
Romans
Latin script
English alphabet
Tabula rasa
Tabula rasa is the theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content.
It suggests that the mind is a "blank slate" at birth, shaped by experience.
This concept is often attributed to philosopher John Locke.
Tabula rasa implies that knowledge comes from sensory experience and perception.
It contrasts with the idea of innate knowledge or ideas.
Agents of enculturation
Agents of enculturation:
Family: Primary socializing agent
Education system: Formal transmission of culture
Media: Shapes beliefs and values
Peer groups: Influence behavior and attitudes
Religion: Provides moral guidance
Industrialized countries develop self-awareness by around age two.
Children start recognizing themselves in the mirror
They use personal pronouns like "I" and "me"
Begin to understand their own emotions and desires
Develop a sense of autonomy and independence
Show self-conscious emotions like pride and embarrassment
First Laugh Ceremony
Navajo tradition
Celebrates baby's first laugh
Important milestone
Family and community gather
Baby receives gifts and blessings
An individual’s personality comes from these...
Genetics: Influence inherited traits
Environment: Shapes behavior and attitudes
Culture: Impacts beliefs and values
Socialization: Learning norms and customs
Experiences: Mold perceptions and reactions
Coming of Age in Samoa, published in 1928.
Author: Margaret Mead
Study conducted in American Samoa
Challenges Western views on adolescence
Argues culture shapes behavior
Emphasizes impact of environment on development
Dependence training
Focuses on teaching individuals to rely on others for support
Emphasizes building trust and interdependence in relationships
Commonly used in therapy and counseling settings
Aims to improve communication and emotional connections
Helps individuals develop healthy boundaries and coping mechanisms
Tests which are valid and reliable in one cultural setting may not be valid or reliable in another culture.
Children start to recognize themselves in the mirror around 18 months old
They begin to use personal pronouns like "I" and "me" around age two
Self-awareness allows children to understand their own emotions and thoughts
Developing self-awareness is crucial for social interactions and relationships
Studies of national character
National character studies focus on identifying unique traits of a specific country's population
Researchers use various methods like surveys, interviews, and observations to study national character
These studies aim to understand cultural values, beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes of a nation
National character can influence politics, economics, social interactions, and overall development
Not all scholars agree on the concept of national character due to its complexity and potential for stereotypes
Francis Hsu and cultural core values--example--US and rugged individualism.
Francis Hsu:
Anthropologist known for his work on cultural values
Studied cultural differences in child-rearing practices
Emphasized the importance of cultural context in shaping behavior
Cultural Core Values in the US:
Rugged individualism
Equality
Freedom
Democracy
Normative orientation
Emphasizes conformity to societal norms
Focuses on following rules and guidelines
Encourages adherence to established standards
Ethnic psychosis
Definition: Mental disorder triggered by cultural conflicts
Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, paranoia
Risk factors: Immigration, discrimination, acculturation stress
Treatment: Culturally sensitive therapy, medication
Prognosis: Better outcomes with early intervention
Cultural adaptation
Cultural adaptation involves adjusting to a new culture
It includes learning new customs, values, and behaviors
Adaptation can be challenging but leads to better integration
Understanding cultural nuances is crucial for successful adaptation
Ecosystem/culture Biocultural Connection Surviving in the Andes
Andean people's survival linked to ecosystem
Dependence on agriculture, livestock, and natural resources
Cultural practices shaped by environment
Connection between biodiversity and cultural diversity
Redistribution
Definition: Redistribution involves the transfer of wealth, income, or resources from some individuals to others.
Types: Progressive taxation, welfare programs, subsidies, and public services.
Goals: Reduce income inequality, alleviate poverty, and promote social justice.
Impact: Can lead to economic growth, social stability, and improved well-being for disadvantaged groups.
Culture change
Definition: Transformation of beliefs, values, and behaviors within an organization
Drivers: Leadership support, employee involvement, clear communication
Benefits: Improved morale, increased productivity, enhanced innovation
Challenges: Resistance to change, lack of alignment, cultural clashes
Parallel evolution
Definition: Independent evolution of similar traits in unrelated species
Examples: Marsupial mammals in Australia, cacti in Americas
Mechanism: Similar environmental pressures lead to convergent evolution
Importance: Provides insights into evolutionary processes
Study methods: Comparative genomics, fossil records
Culture core
Values and beliefs: Shape behavior and decision-making
Norms and customs: Define acceptable behavior
Symbols and rituals: Represent shared meanings
Language and communication: Facilitate interaction
Social structure: Organizes relationships and roles
Food foraging and their lifestyle
Hunter-gatherers rely on foraging for food
Foraging involves gathering wild plants, fruits, nuts, and seeds
Hunter-gatherer societies are nomadic
Foragers also hunt wild animals for food
Foraging lifestyle is characterized by small, mobile groups
Farming
Agricultural revolution marked shift from hunter-gatherer to farming societies
Farming led to surplus food, population growth, settlements
Domestication of plants and animals crucial for farming
Different farming methods developed worldwide
Farming practices impact environment, economy, and culture
Pastoralism
Pastoralism is a form of agriculture
It involves raising livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats
Pastoralists are nomadic or semi-nomadic
Common in arid and semi-arid regions
Provides livelihood for millions of people worldwide
Carrying capacity
Definition: Maximum population size an environment can sustain
Influenced by: Availability of resources, space, predation, disease
Factors affecting: Birth rate, death rate, immigration, emigration
Importance: Helps in understanding ecosystem dynamics
Ecological balance: Maintaining carrying capacity crucial for sustainability
Carrying cultural limit
Cultural limits shape behavior
Influence from societal norms
Impact on individual actions
Defines acceptable conduct
Varies across cultures
Urbanization
Concentration of population in cities
Development of infrastructure and services
Growth of industries and commerce
Social and cultural changes
Impact on environment and resources
Slash-and-burn agriculture
Slash-and-burn agriculture:
Traditional farming method
Involves cutting and burning of forests
Nutrients from burnt vegetation enrich soil
Sustainable if land left fallow
Can lead to deforestation and soil degradation
Is change always progress?
Change can be positive or negative
Progress is subjective
Change can lead to regression
Progress implies improvement
Change can disrupt stability
Economic system
Economic system determines how resources are allocated
Types include traditional, command, market, mixed
Influences production, distribution, consumption
Impacts employment, wealth distribution, economic growth
Kenya’s first president
Jomo Kenyatta was Kenya's first president
He led the country to independence from British colonial rule
Kenyatta played a key role in shaping Kenya's political landscape
His presidency focused on nation-building and economic development
Kenyatta's leadership legacy continues to influence Kenyan politics
gender division of labor
Gender division of labor:
Definition: Assigning tasks based on gender norms
Historical context: Rooted in traditional societies
Impact: Reinforces gender stereotypes
Modern challenges: Advocacy for gender equality
Examples: Women in caregiving, men in leadership roles
Cooperative work groups
Defined as a group of individuals working together towards a common goal
Encourages collaboration, communication, and shared responsibility
Members contribute diverse skills and perspectives
Enhances problem-solving and decision-making abilities
Fosters creativity and innovation
Conspicuous consumption
Coined by economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen
Refers to the public display of wealth to gain social status
Often involves purchasing luxury goods and services
Seen as a form of social signaling and competition
Criticized for promoting materialism and inequality
leveling mechanism
Leveling mechanism:
Used in games to advance characters
Players gain experience points to level up
Unlocks new abilities or items
Provides a sense of achievement and progress
Cultural adaptation
Understanding local customs and traditions: Respect cultural norms
Language proficiency: Learn the local language
Cultural sensitivity: Be aware of cultural differences
Flexibility: Adapt to new ways of doing things
Open-mindedness: Embrace diversity and new perspectives
Ecosystem/culture Biocultural Connection Surviving in the Andes
Andean people have developed unique agricultural practices
Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants is crucial for survival
Indigenous communities in the Andes rely on llama and alpaca herding
Quinoa and potatoes are staple crops in the Andean diet
Cultural practices are intertwined with the surrounding ecosystem
Ecosystem/culture Biocultural Connection Surviving in the Andes