Unit 3: Development and Learning Modules Terms

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

tonic neck reflex

turning the head to one side, extending the arm and leg on that side, and flexing the limbs on the opposite side

moro reflex

Reflex in which a newborn stretches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment

stepping reflex

a neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking

babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

grasp reflex

an infantile reflex in which an infant closes her hand into a fist when her palm is touched

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

1. trust vs. mistrust (0-2) 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2-4) 3. initiative vs. guilt - preschool 4. industry vs. inferiority - school age 5. identity vs. role confusion - teen 6. intimacy vs. isolation - early adult 7. generativity vs. stagnation - 30s-40s 8. integrity vs. despair - 55+

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral thinking

preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

gender schema

a set of behaviors organized around how either a male or female should think and behave

sexual identity

which of the various categories of sexuality one identifies with

gross motor skills

the coordination of larger movements that are among the major physical and psychological milestones

fine motor skills

physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

excitement

phase of the sexual response cycle that involves sexual arousal

plateau phase

phase in human sexual response in which sexual tension builds

orgasm

climax of sexual stimulation

resolution phase

one of the phases of the sexual response cycle; characterized by the body slowly returning to its un-aroused state

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

estrogen

A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

x chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

a sex-differentiating characteristic that doesn't relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women and deepening voices in men

menarche

the first menstrual period

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

intersex

possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

STIs

sexually transmitted infections

HIV

human immunodeficiency virus

AIDS

A serious (often fatal) disease of the immune system transmitted through blood products especially by sexual contact or contaminated needles.

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

egocentric

the pre-operational child's difficulty in taking another's point of view (self-centered)

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

zone of proximal development

phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction

Erik Erikson

Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development

Piaget

theorist that developed a series of stages in which an individual passes during cognitive development.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor stage of cognitive development

in Piaget's theory, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage of cognitive development

use symbolism (images and language) to represent and understand various aspects of environment; respond to object and events according to way things appear; thought is egocentric

concrete operational stage of cognitive development

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage of cognitive development

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Lev Vygotsky's Theory

Wrote that biological development and cultural experience both influenced children's ability to learn. Believed social contact was essential to cognitive development.

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech

productive language

ability to produce words

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

syntax

Sentence structure

universal grammar

Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure

critical period

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

the emotional tie with another person

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

insecure attachment

the attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

association

connecting ideas on the basis of word association and memories, meanings or impressions

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

stimulus

a signal to which an organism responds

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

neural stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning