Psychology exam 2

Sensation

Detecting sensory input from the environment.

Perception

Organizing and interpreting sensory information into meaningful experiences.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Difference threshold

The smallest change needed to detect a difference between two stimuli.

Sensory adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to constant or unchanging stimuli.

Color constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color under changing lighting.

Bottom-up processing

Processing that starts with raw sensory input and builds upward.

Top-down processing

Processing guided by experience, expectations, and knowledge.

Monocular depth cues

Depth cues needing one eye, like linear perspective and relative size.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues needing both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

Gestalt principles

Brain rules that organize visual input into meaningful wholes.

Gestalt principle of proximity

We group nearby items together.

Principle of similarity

We group similar-looking items together.

Principle of continuity

We see smooth, continuous patterns instead of breaks.

Closure

Filling in gaps to complete a whole object.

Transduction

Conversion of external energy into neural signals.

Blind spot

A spot with no receptors where the optic nerve exits the eye.

Size constancy

Recognition that an object remains the same size despite distance changes.

Perceptual set

A mental predisposition to interpret stimuli a certain way.

Developmental psychology

Study of how people grow and change throughout life.

Maturation

Biological growth that enables change.

Pruning

Elimination of unused neural connections.

Schema

Mental framework that organizes knowledge.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas when new information does not fit.

Sensorimotor stage

Learning through senses/actions; object permanence develops.

Object permanence

Knowing objects continue to exist even when unseen.

Preoperational stage

Symbolic thinking but lacking logic and conservation.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing things from another person's perspective.

Concrete operational stage

Logical thinking develops; conservation understood.

Formal operational stage

Abstract and hypothetical reasoning emerges.

Attachment

Emotional bond that promotes closeness and protection.

Secure attachment

Securely attached children show healthier trust and relationships later in life.

Avoidant attachment

Difficulty with closeness and conflict in relationships later.

Anxious attachment

Clinginess and high reassurance-seeking in relationships.

Harlow's monkey study

Comfort is more important than food in attachment.

Authoritarian parenting

Strict rules, low warmth; leads to lower confidence and higher anxiety.

Authoritative parenting

Warm with rules; leads to independence and strong skills.

Permissive parenting

Few rules; leads to impulsivity and low self-control.

Uninvolved parenting

Neglectful; leads to poor social and academic outcomes.

Theory of mind

Understanding that others have different beliefs and intentions.

Preconventional morality

Avoid punishment or gain rewards.

Conventional morality

Uphold laws and gain approval.

Postconventional morality

Guided by ethical principles and human rights.

Identity vs role confusion stage

Teens explore identity and may struggle with belonging.

Delayed gratification

Waiting for a better reward.

Teratogens

Harmful prenatal exposure such as alcohol, drugs, or viruses.

Puberty

Developmental period of sexual maturation.

Intrinsic motivation

Doing something because you enjoy it.

Extrinsic motivation

Doing something for external rewards.

Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Internal satisfaction vs. outside incentives.

Broca's area damage

Broken or halted speech; trouble producing words.

Wernicke's area damage

Fluent but nonsensical speech; poor understanding.

Early childhood language learning

Brain is more receptive before age 7.

Twin and adoption studies on intelligence

Genes and environment both influence intelligence.

Algorithm

Step-by-step method that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

Quick shortcut strategy that is less accurate.

Prototype

Best example of a category.

Availability heuristic

Judging likelihood by what comes to mind easily.

Example of availability heuristic

Overestimating airplane danger after news stories.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging based on stereotypes.

Framing effect

Decision changes depending on wording.

Framing in advertising

Positive wording increases persuasion.

Confirmation bias

Seeking information that supports beliefs.

Confirmation bias in news interpretation

People trust only stories matching their beliefs.

Counterfactual thinking

Imagining 'what might have been.'

Overconfidence

Being more certain than correct.

Belief perseverance

Clinging to beliefs despite evidence.

Nudging

Altering choices by changing how options are presented.

Stereotype threat

Fear of confirming a stereotype hurting performance.

Example of stereotype threat

Girls scoring lower in math after stereotypes are mentioned.

Unconscious bias

Automatic preferences influencing decisions unconsciously.

Résumé study findings

'John' rated more competent than 'Jennifer' on identical résumés.

Awareness of biases

Biases operate automatically and unconsciously.

Intuition in thinking

Enables fast judgments based on experience.

Risks of intuition

Can lead to errors from mental shortcuts.

Algorithms vs heuristics

Algorithms are guaranteed but slow; heuristics are fast but flawed.

Creativity in problem-solving

Leads to new and useful ideas.

Sex in psychology

Biological traits like chromosomes and anatomy.

Gender in psychology

Social and psychological roles and identity.

Distinction between sex and gender

To separate biological traits from social influences.

Gender identity

Internal sense of male, female, both, or neither.

Cisgender

Gender identity matches birth-assigned sex.

Transgender

Gender identity differs from birth-assigned sex.

Differences in transgender experiences

Transgender people face more discrimination and social challenges.

Gender roles

Society's expectations for masculine and feminine behavior.

Cultural norms and gender roles

Modeling, reinforcement, and media teach role expectations.

Social learning and gender

Children imitate and are rewarded for gender-typed behavior.

Y chromosome role in development

Triggers testes development at about 7 weeks.

Hormones and gendered development

Shape physical traits and brain patterns.

Epigenetics

Experience changes gene expression.

Identical twins differences

Environment activates different genes.

HIV transmission

Unprotected sex, shared needles, mother-to-child.

HIV health impact

It attacks the immune system.

Weakened immune system effects

Minor illnesses become serious and dangerous.

How does your brain use both bottom-up and top-down processing when interpreting

complex visual scenes, such as reading a blurry sign or recognizing a familiar face in a

Crowd?

Bottom-up processing begins with sensory receptors detecting basic elements such as lines, angles, or colors. Top-down processing uses experience and expectations to interpret what those elements mean. When reading a blurry sign or spotting someone in a crowd, the brain uses both: the sensory input (bottom-up) plus your memory of words or familiar faces (top-down)

Why do two objects of the same color look different in sunlight versus dim indoor light,

and how does color constancy allow us to perceive them as the same color?

Lighting changes the wavelengths reflected by objects, so two objects can look different in sunlight versus indoors. Color constancy helps the brain perceive consistent color despite changes in illumination.

How do monocular cues like relative size and linear perspective and binocular cues

like retinal disparity and convergence help people have depth perception?

Monocular cues like relative size and linear perspective allow depth perception with one eye.

Binocular cues like retinal disparity and convergence rely on both eyes to judge distance.

Why is sensory adaptation an important function for survival?

Sensory adaptation reduces sensitivity to constant stimuli, helping the brain focus on new or important information that may signal danger or opportunity.

Explain the process of transduction in one of the five senses. How does physical energy

(light, sound, or pressure) get turned into something your brain can understand?

Transduction converts physical energy into neural impulses. For example, in vision, the eyes receive light waves, transform them into electrical signals in the retina, and deliver them to the brain for interpretation.