AP Psychology Unit 2-5 & 14 BOE Vocab Terms

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Critical Thinking

The ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively and systematically, without bias.

Theory

A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, that can be experimentally or observationally tested.

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables, making them measurable.

Replication

Repeating an experiment with different participants or in different settings to determine if the original findings can be generalized.

Case Study

A research method involving an in-depth analysis of a single individual or a small group.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control.

Survey

A research method that involves asking people questions about their attitudes, behaviors, or opinions.

Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population being studied.

Population

The entire group of individuals being studied or from which a sample is drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of being included.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables change together.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 that measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot

A graph that represents the values of two variables and can help illustrate correlations.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists, often based on cognitive biases.

Experiment

A research method in which one variable is manipulated to determine its effect on another variable, with controlled conditions.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to different groups by chance, ensuring equal chances of being placed in any group.

Double-Blind Procedure

A research method in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of group assignments to reduce bias.

Placebo

A harmless substance or condition administered to control groups, resembling the experimental treatment with no active effect.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that may cause an effect, leading to false conclusions.

Dependent Variable

The variable being measured in an experiment, affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is intended to measure.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical methods used to organize and summarize data (e.g., mean, median, mode).

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Mean

The average score in a distribution, calculated by summing all the scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when the scores are ordered.

Skewed Distribution

A distribution of data in which one tail is longer or fatter than the other.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the average distance between each score and the mean; higher values indicate greater variability.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped, symmetrical distribution of data in which most scores cluster around the mean.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical techniques used to draw conclusions from a sample and make inferences about the population.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that a result is not due to chance, typically set at a p-value of 0.05 or lower.

Culture

The shared beliefs, values, and customs that influence the behavior and thinking of a group of people.

Informed Consent

The ethical principle that participants must be informed about the nature of the study and agree to participate voluntarily.

Debriefing

The process of explaining the purposes and results of a study to participants after the experiment has concluded.

Biological Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies the connection between biology and behavior, including the brain, nervous system, and genetics.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information throughout the body via electrical and chemical signals.

Paul Broca

A French physician known for his research on the role of the frontal lobe in language production (Broca’s area).

Carl Wernicke

A German neurologist who discovered the area of the brain (Wernicke's area) involved in understanding language.

Roger Sperry

A neuroscientist known for his work with split-brain patients, demonstrating how the two hemispheres of the brain function independently.

Michael Gazzaniga

A neuroscientist who studied the functions of the brain’s hemispheres and collaborated with Sperry on split-brain research.

Charles Darwin

A biologist known for developing the theory of natural selection, influencing evolutionary psychology.

Dendrites

The branch-like extensions of neurons that receive incoming signals from other neurons.

Axon

The long part of a neuron that transmits electrical signals away from the cell body.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer covering the axon that speeds up the transmission of electrical signals.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, allowing communication between neurons.

Refractory Period

A brief period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

All-or-None Response

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or not at all when the threshold is reached.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after being released into the synapse.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that regulate pain and pleasure, often referred to as the body’s natural painkillers.

Agonist

A substance that enhances or mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.

Nervous System

The body's electrochemical communication system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord, which process and send signals to and from the rest of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves outside the CNS that connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Bundles of axons that transmit information to and from the CNS.

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS.

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Endocrine System

A collection of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands that regulate various body functions.

Adrenal Glands

Glands located on top of the kidneys that produce hormones like adrenaline and cortisol.

Pituitary Gland

A small endocrine gland at the base of the brain that regulates other endocrine glands.

Lesion

A damaged or injured area of the brain, often studied to understand brain functions.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A recording of brain waves used to study electrical activity in the brain.

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan

An imaging technique using X-rays to create pictures of the brain or body parts.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan

An imaging technique that detects radioactive markers to visualize brain activity.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

An imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain.

Brainstem

The part of the brain that controls basic life functions like breathing and heart rate.

Medulla

The part of the brainstem that regulates vital functions like heart rate and breathing.

Thalamus

A brain structure that acts as a relay station for sensory information.

Reticular Formation

A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal, attention, and sleep.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain that coordinates voluntary movements and balance.

Limbic System

A set of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Amygdala

A part of the limbic system involved in processing emotions like fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus

A small brain region that regulates basic drives like hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, involved in higher functions like thought, language, and perception.

Glial Cells

Cells that support and nourish neurons, maintaining the brain's environment.

Frontal Lobes

Brain regions involved in decision-making, planning, and voluntary movement.

Temporal Lobes

Brain regions associated with hearing, language, and memory.

Motor Cortex

A part of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary muscle movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

A region of the parietal lobe that processes sensory input from the body.

Association Areas

Brain areas that integrate information from sensory and motor areas for higher-level functions.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons in the brain.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.

Split Brain

A condition in which the corpus callosum is surgically severed, leading to hemispheric disjunction.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and the environment.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain's role in cognitive processes.

Dual Processing

The principle that information is processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Behavior Genetics

The study of how genetic and environmental factors influence behavior.

Environment

All external influences that affect an individual’s development.

Chromosomes

Structures made of DNA that carry genetic information.

DNA

A molecule that carries genetic instructions for development and functioning.