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AP Psychology Unit 2-5 & 14 BOE Vocab Terms
General Psychology Concepts:
Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. "I knew it all along" effect.
Critical Thinking: The ability to analyze and evaluate information objectively and systematically, without bias.
Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, that can be experimentally or observationally tested.
Operational Definition: A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables, making them measurable.
Replication: Repeating an experiment with different participants or in different settings to determine if the original findings can be generalized.
Case Study: A research method involving an in-depth analysis of a single individual or a small group, often used to reveal universal principles.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control.
Survey: A research method that involves asking people questions about their attitudes, behaviors, or opinions.
Sampling Bias: A bias that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population being studied.
Population: The entire group of individuals being studied or from which a sample is drawn.
Random Sample: A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of being included.
Correlation: A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables change together.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 that measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
Scatterplot: A graph that represents the values of two variables and can help illustrate correlations.
Illusory Correlation: The perception of a relationship where none exists, often based on cognitive biases.
Experiment: A research method in which one variable is manipulated to determine its effect on another variable, with controlled conditions.
Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.
Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison.
Random Assignment: The process of assigning participants to different groups (e.g., experimental or control) by chance, ensuring that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group.
Double-Blind Procedure: A research method in which both the participants and the experimenters are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group, helping to reduce bias.
Placebo: A harmless substance or condition administered to control groups, designed to resemble the experimental treatment but having no active effect.
Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to determine its effect on the dependent variable.
Confounding Variable: A factor other than the independent variable that may cause an effect in the experiment, leading to false conclusions.
Dependent Variable: The variable being measured in an experiment, which is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Validity: The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is intended to measure.
Descriptive Statistics: Statistical methods used to organize and summarize data (e.g., mean, median, mode).
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The average score in a distribution, calculated by summing all the scores and dividing by the number of scores.
Median: The middle score in a distribution when the scores are ordered.
Skewed Distribution: A distribution of data in which one tail is longer or fatter than the other, indicating a lopsided distribution.
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.
Standard Deviation: A measure of the average distance between each score and the mean in a distribution; higher standard deviation indicates greater variability.
Normal Curve: A bell-shaped, symmetrical distribution of data in which most scores cluster around the mean.
Inferential Statistics: Statistical techniques used to draw conclusions from a sample and make inferences about the population.
Statistical Significance: The likelihood that a result is not due to chance, typically set at a p-value of 0.05 or lower.
Culture: The shared beliefs, values, and customs that influence the behavior and thinking of a group of people.
Informed Consent: The ethical principle that participants must be informed about the nature of the study and agree to participate voluntarily.
Debriefing: The process of explaining the purposes and results of a study to participants after the experiment has concluded.
Biological Psychology and Neurons:
Biological Psychology: A branch of psychology that studies the connection between biology and behavior, including the brain, nervous system, and genetics.
Neuron: A nerve cell that transmits information throughout the body via electrical and chemical signals.
Paul Broca: A French physician known for his research on the role of the frontal lobe in language production (Broca’s area).
Carl Wernicke: A German neurologist who discovered the area of the brain (Wernicke's area) involved in understanding language.
Roger Sperry: A neuroscientist known for his work with split-brain patients, demonstrating how the two hemispheres of the brain function independently.
Michael Gazzaniga: A neuroscientist who collaborated with Sperry on split-brain research and studied the functions of the brain’s hemispheres.
Charles Darwin: A biologist known for developing the theory of natural selection, which has influenced evolutionary psychology.
Dendrites: The branch-like extensions of neurons that receive incoming signals from other neurons.
Axon: The long, threadlike part of a neuron that transmits electrical signals away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.
Myelin Sheath: A fatty layer that covers the axon and speeds up the transmission of electrical signals.
Action Potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, allowing communication between neurons.
Refractory Period: A brief period after an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire again.
Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.
All-or-None Response: The principle that a neuron either fires completely or not at all when the threshold is reached.
Synapse: The junction between two neurons, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another.
Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after being released into the synapse.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitters that regulate pain and pleasure, often referred to as the body’s natural painkillers.
Agonist: A substance that enhances or mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist: A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.
Nervous System: The body's electrochemical communication system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.
Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord, which process and send signals to and from the rest of the body.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The network of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
Nerves: Bundles of axons that transmit information to and from the CNS.
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS.
Motor (Efferent) Neurons: Neurons that carry commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
Endocrine System: A collection of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.
Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands that regulate various body functions.
Adrenal Glands: Glands located on top of the kidneys that produce hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, involved in the body’s stress response.
Pituitary Gland: A small endocrine gland at the base of the brain, often called the "master gland," because it regulates other endocrine glands.
Lesion: A damaged or injured area of the brain, often studied to understand the function of specific brain regions.
Electroencephalogram (EEG): A recording of brain waves, used to study electrical activity in the brain.
CT (Computed Tomography) Scan: An imaging technique that uses X-rays to create detailed pictures of the brain or other body parts.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan: An imaging technique that detects radioactive markers to visualize brain activity.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): An imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain's structure.
Brainstem: The part of the brain that controls basic life functions, such as breathing and heart rate.
Medulla: The part of the brainstem that regulates vital functions like heart rate and breathing.
Thalamus: A brain structure that acts as a relay station for sensory information.
Reticular Formation: A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal, attention, and sleep.
Cerebellum: The part of the brain that coordinates voluntary movements and balance.
Limbic System: A set of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.
Amygdala: A part of the limbic system involved in processing emotions like fear and aggression.
Hypothalamus: A small brain region that regulates basic drives such as hunger, thirst, and body temperature.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the brain, involved in higher functions like thought, language, and perception.
Glial Cells: Cells that support and nourish neurons, playing a role in maintaining the brain's environment.
Frontal Lobes: Brain regions involved in decision-making, planning, and voluntary movement.
Temporal Lobes: Brain regions associated with hearing, language, and memory.
Motor Cortex: A part of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary muscle movements.
Somatosensory Cortex: A region of the parietal lobe that processes sensory input from the body.
Association Areas: Brain areas that integrate information from sensory and motor areas for higher-level functions like thinking and memory.
Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections.
Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons in the brain.
Corpus Callosum: A thick band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.
Split Brain: A condition in which the corpus callosum is surgically severed, leading to a division of the brain's hemispheric functions.
Consciousness: Awareness of oneself and the environment.
Cognitive Neuroscience: The interdisciplinary study of the brain's role in cognitive processes like thinking, memory, and language.
Dual Processing: The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
Behavior Genetics: The study of how genetic and environmental factors influence behavior.
Environment: All external influences that affect an individual’s development, including physical surroundings and social influences.
Chromosomes: Structures made of DNA that carry genetic information.
DNA: A molecule that carries genetic instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms.
Genes: Units of hereditary information encoded in DNA.
Genome: The complete set of genetic material in an organism.
Identical Twins: Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg and share the same genetic material.
Fraternal Twins: Twins that develop from two separate eggs and are genetically similar to each other as any siblings.
Molecular Genetics: The study of the structure and function of genes at the molecular level.
Heritability: The proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetic differences.
Interaction: The interplay between genetic and environmental factors in influencing behavior.
Interneurons: Neurons that communicate between sensory and motor neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
Somatic Nervous System: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: The branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.
Reflex: An automatic response to a sensory stimulus.
Brain Areas and Psychological Concepts:
Parietal Lobes: Brain regions located at the top of the head that are involved in processing sensory information, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.
Occipital Lobes: The brain regions at the back of the head responsible for processing visual information.
Epigenetics: The study of changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors rather than changes in the underlying DNA sequence.
Evolutionary Psychology: The study of how evolutionary principles, such as natural selection, influence human behavior and cognition.
Natural Selection: The process by which traits that increase an organism's chances of survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time.
Mutation: A change in the genetic material of an organism, which can lead to new traits that may be advantageous or harmful.
Certainly! Here are the definitions for the next batch of terms:
Brain Areas and Psychological Concepts:
Parietal Lobes: Brain regions located at the top of the head that are involved in processing sensory information, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.
Occipital Lobes: The brain regions at the back of the head responsible for processing visual information.
Epigenetics: The study of changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors rather than changes in the underlying DNA sequence.
Evolutionary Psychology: The study of how evolutionary principles, such as natural selection, influence human behavior and cognition.
Natural Selection: The process by which traits that increase an organism's chances of survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time.
Mutation: A change in the genetic material of an organism, which can lead to new traits that may be advantageous or harmful.
Sensation and Perception:
Sensation: The process by which sensory receptors detect and transmit physical energy (e.g., light, sound waves) from the environment to the brain.
Perception: The process of organizing, interpreting, and making sense of sensory information to form an understanding of the world.
Bottom-Up Processing: The approach to perception that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.
Top-Down Processing: The approach to perception that starts with higher-level cognitive processes, such as experiences and expectations, and works down to interpret sensory information.
Selective Attention: The process by which a person focuses on one stimulus while ignoring others. For example, focusing on a conversation in a noisy room.
Inattentional Blindness: The failure to notice a fully visible but unexpected stimulus because attention is focused elsewhere.
Change Blindness: The failure to detect changes in a visual scene, particularly when those changes are gradual or unexpected.
Transduction: The process of converting sensory stimuli (e.g., light, sound) into neural signals that the brain can process.
Psychophysics: The study of how physical stimuli (like light, sound, or touch) are related to psychological experiences (like perception).
Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus required for it to be detected 50% of the time.
Signal Detection Theory: A theory that explains how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amidst background noise.
Subliminal: Below the threshold of conscious awareness, a stimulus that is not consciously perceived but may still influence behavior.
Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations or concepts in memory that influence perception and behavior.
Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference): The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.
Weber’s Law: A principle stating that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.
Sensory Adaptation: The process by which sensory receptors become less sensitive to constant or unchanging stimuli over time.
Perceptual Set: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing over another, influenced by expectations, context, or experiences.
Extrasensory Perception (ESP): The ability to perceive information beyond the five traditional senses, such as telepathy or clairvoyance.
Parapsychology: The study of paranormal phenomena, such as ESP and psychokinesis.
Wavelength: The distance between successive crests or troughs of a wave, often referring to light or sound waves, which influences color or pitch.
Hue: The color aspect of light, determined by the wavelength of the light that is reflected or emitted.
Pupil: The black circular opening in the center of the eye that controls the amount of light entering the eye.
Iris: The colored part of the eye that regulates the size of the pupil and controls how much light enters the eye.
Lens: The transparent structure behind the iris that focuses light onto the retina.
Retina: The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) and processes visual information.
Accommodation: The process by which the lens changes shape to focus light on the retina, allowing us to see objects at various distances.
Rods: Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to low light and are responsible for peripheral and night vision.
Cones: Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision and visual acuity in bright light.
Optic Nerve: The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
Blind Spot: The area of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a small gap in the visual field because there are no photoreceptor cells.
Fovea: The central part of the retina, responsible for sharp, detailed central vision.
Feature Detectors: Neurons in the brain that respond to specific features of stimuli, such as edges, angles, or motion.
Parallel Processing: The brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of a stimulus (such as color, motion, shape) simultaneously.
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic (Three-Color) Theory: A theory of color vision that proposes that the retina contains three types of color receptors (red, green, and blue).
Opponent-Process Theory: A theory of color vision that proposes the existence of opposing color pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white), and the activation of one color inhibits the perception of the opposite.
Gestalt: A psychological approach that emphasizes the human tendency to perceive objects as whole rather than in parts.
Figure-Ground: The organization of visual information into the figure (the object of focus) and the ground (the background).
Grouping: The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups based on proximity, similarity, continuity, or closure.
Depth Perception: The ability to perceive the distance between objects and understand their three-dimensional structure.
Visual Cliff: A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and animals.
Binocular Cues: Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.
Retinal Disparity: A binocular cue for depth perception that involves comparing the images from both eyes; greater disparity suggests closer objects.
Monocular Cues: Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye, including relative size, interposition, and linear perspective.
Phi Phenomenon: The illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.
Perceptual Constancy: The perception of objects as unchanging, despite changes in sensory input, such as color constancy and size constancy.
Color Constancy: The perception that an object’s color remains consistent under varying lighting conditions.
Perceptual Adaptation: The ability to adjust to changes in the sensory input, such as adapting to visual distortions or new environments.
Audition and Hearing:
Audition: The sense or act of hearing.
Frequency: The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time, determining the pitch of a sound.
Pitch: A sound’s perceived frequency, which determines whether a sound is high or low.
Middle Ear: The part of the ear that includes the eardrum and ossicles, which amplify sound vibrations.
Cochlea: A spiral-shaped organ in the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into neural signals.
Inner Ear: The innermost part of the ear, including the cochlea and auditory nerve, responsible for converting sound vibrations into neural signals.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea or the auditory nerve.
Conduction Hearing Loss: Hearing loss caused by problems with the outer or middle ear, preventing sound from reaching the inner ear.
Cochlear Implant: A device that directly stimulates the auditory nerve to restore hearing in individuals with sensorineural hearing loss.
Place Theory: A theory of pitch perception that suggests different frequencies of sound cause different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane to vibrate.
Frequency Theory: A theory of pitch perception that suggests the frequency of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the sound wave.
Gate-Control Theory: A theory that proposes that the spinal cord contains a “gate” that either blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain.
Kinesthesia: The sense of movement and position of individual body parts.
Vestibular Sense: The sense of balance and spatial orientation, involving the inner ear's semicircular canals and vestibular sacs.
Sensory Interaction: The principle that one sense can influence the perception of another sense, such as the interaction of taste and smell.
Embodied Cognition: The influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other physical experiences on cognitive processes.
Intensity: The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which influences its perceived brightness or loudness. In vision, it corresponds to the amplitude of the light wave; in sound, it corresponds to the wave's amplitude (volume).
Historical Figures in Psychology:
Gustav Fechner: A German philosopher and physicist, often considered the founder of psychophysics, who studied the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations they produce.
Ernst Weber: A German physician known for Weber's Law, which states that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original stimulus.
David Hubel: A neuroscientist who, along with Torsten Wiesel, studied the visual cortex and contributed to the understanding of how the brain processes visual information.
Torsten Wiesel: A neuroscientist who, with David Hubel, researched how the brain processes visual information and won the Nobel Prize for their work on the visual system.
Consciousness and Sleep:
Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment, including thoughts, feelings, and sensations.
Hypnosis: A state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and focused attention that can sometimes be used for therapeutic purposes or to alter perception.
Posthypnotic Suggestion: A suggestion made during hypnosis that influences a person’s behavior after the hypnosis session has ended.
Dissociation: A split in consciousness, which can lead to a lack of awareness of one's surroundings or the experience of two separate streams of thought.
Circadian Rhythm: The biological clock that regulates physiological processes on a roughly 24-hour cycle, such as sleep-wake patterns and body temperature.
REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement Sleep): A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreaming, and increased brain activity. It is believed to play a role in memory consolidation.
Alpha Waves: Brain waves that are characteristic of a relaxed, awake state, often observed when a person is resting with their eyes closed.
Sleep: A natural, recurring state of rest for the body and mind, essential for physical and mental health.
Hallucination: A false perception of something that is not present, which can occur during sleep deprivation or certain psychological conditions.
Delta Waves: Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (NREM stages 3 and 4). They are the largest and slowest brain waves.
NREM Sleep (Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep): The stages of sleep that occur without rapid eye movements, including deep sleep stages (stages 3 and 4).
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): A small region in the hypothalamus that regulates the circadian rhythm and influences sleep-wake cycles.
Insomnia: A sleep disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable and sudden bouts of sleep, often triggered by strong emotions.
Sleep Apnea: A sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, leading to poor sleep quality.
Night Terrors: Episodes of intense fear during sleep, often accompanied by screaming and thrashing, and typically occur during NREM sleep (stage 3).
Dream: A series of thoughts, images, and sensations that occur during sleep, especially during REM sleep, often interpreted as reflections of subconscious desires.
Manifest Content: The visible, surface-level content of a dream, according to Freudian theory, representing symbolic manifestations of unconscious desires.
Latent Content: The hidden, unconscious meaning behind the manifest content of a dream, often thought to represent repressed desires or emotions.
REM Rebound: The tendency for REM sleep to increase following sleep deprivation, especially after being deprived of REM sleep for an extended period.
Substance Use and Addiction:
Substance Use Disorder: A condition characterized by the harmful or problematic use of substances (e.g., alcohol, drugs) that leads to significant impairment or distress.
Psychoactive Drug: A chemical substance that alters perceptions, moods, or behavior by affecting the brain and nervous system.
Tolerance: The diminishing effect of a drug or substance with repeated use, requiring increasing amounts to achieve the same effect.
Addiction: A compulsive, chronic need for a substance or behavior, often accompanied by withdrawal symptoms when the substance is unavailable.
Withdrawal: Physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person stops using a substance to which they are addicted.
Depressants: Substances that reduce activity in the central nervous system, often leading to relaxation and lowered inhibition (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates).
Alcohol Use Disorder: A condition involving excessive and problematic consumption of alcohol, leading to impaired functioning and health issues.
Barbiturates: A class of drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, often used as sedatives or anesthetics.
Opiates: A class of drugs that include heroin, morphine, and prescription painkillers, which act as powerful pain relievers but can lead to addiction.
Stimulants: Substances that increase activity in the central nervous system, leading to heightened alertness, energy, and mood (e.g., caffeine, nicotine, cocaine).
Amphetamines: A group of stimulant drugs that increase the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine, leading to heightened energy and alertness.
Nicotine: A highly addictive stimulant found in tobacco, known for its stimulant effects on the nervous system.
Cocaine: A powerful stimulant that temporarily increases energy, alertness, and euphoria, but can also lead to addiction and negative physical effects.
Methamphetamine: A highly addictive stimulant drug that increases dopamine release, leading to intense euphoria, but also significant physical and psychological harm.
Ecstasy (MDMA): A stimulant and hallucinogenic drug that increases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, leading to heightened emotions and sensory experiences.
Hallucinogens: Substances that alter perceptions and can cause visual and auditory hallucinations (e.g., LSD, psilocybin mushrooms).
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide): A powerful hallucinogen that alters sensory perception and thought patterns, often producing vivid hallucinations.
Near-Death Experience: A phenomenon reported by people who have come close to death, often involving sensations such as floating, seeing a bright light, or feeling a sense of peace.
THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol): The main psychoactive compound in marijuana that produces a "high" by altering perception and mood.
Key Figures in Psychology:
William James (in relation to this chapter): An American philosopher and psychologist, often considered the father of American psychology. He contributed to the functionalist school of thought and is well known for his work on consciousness and the stream of thought.
Ernest Hilgard: A psychologist best known for his research on hypnosis, especially for his work on the "hidden observer" theory, which suggests that hypnosis can produce a dissociative state.
Sigmund Freud (in relation to this chapter): The founder of psychoanalysis, Freud is famous for his work on unconscious processes, dream interpretation, and the structure of the psyche (id, ego, and superego).
Social Psychology:
Social Psychology: The scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others.
Attribution Theory: A theory in social psychology that explores how people interpret and explain the causes of their own and others' behavior.
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the role of situational factors when explaining others' behavior.
Attitude: A favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a person, object, or event, which influences behavior and decision-making.
Peripheral Route Persuasion: A method of persuasion that relies on superficial cues, such as attractiveness or expertise of the speaker, rather than the content of the message.
Central Route Persuasion: A method of persuasion that involves careful consideration of the message's content and logic, leading to attitude change through reason and argument.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency for people to comply with a larger request after first agreeing to a smaller, less significant one.
Role: A set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position should behave.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The theory that people experience discomfort when holding conflicting cognitions, leading them to change their attitudes or behaviors to reduce the discomfort.
Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to align with group norms, often due to real or perceived group pressure.
Normative Social Influence: Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid rejection from others in a group.
Informational Social Influence: Influence resulting from the belief that others are correct in their judgments or behaviors.
Social Facilitation: The tendency for people to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others.
Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.
Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Group Polarization: The tendency for group members' attitudes to become more extreme after discussing an issue as a group.
Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the desire for harmony and conformity in a group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making.
Culture: The beliefs, customs, behaviors, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed down from one generation to the next.
Norm: An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior within a group or society.
Prejudice: A preconceived negative judgment or opinion about a group of people, often based on stereotypes.
Stereotype: A generalized belief about a group of people, often oversimplified and inaccurate.
Discrimination: Unjust or prejudicial treatment of people based on their group membership (e.g., race, gender, age).
Just-World Phenomenon: The tendency to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming.
Ingroup: A social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging.
Outgroup: A social group with which an individual does not identify, often leading to feelings of exclusion.
Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one's own group over other groups.
Scapegoat Theory: The theory that prejudice arises when people blame others for their problems or frustrations.
Other-Race Effect: The tendency to more easily recognize faces of one's own race compared to faces of other races.
Aggression: Any behavior intended to harm or destroy another person or object.
Frustration-Aggression Principle: The theory that frustration occurs when one’s goals are blocked, leading to anger and aggression.
Social Script: A culturally specific guide or template for behavior in social situations.
Mere Exposure Effect: The tendency to develop a preference for things we are exposed to repeatedly.
Passionate Love: An intense form of love involving emotional and physical attraction.
Companionate Love: A deep, affectionate attachment to someone with whom we have a close, long-term relationship.
Equity: The principle that both partners in a relationship contribute and receive equally, fostering balance and fairness.
Self-Disclosure: The act of revealing personal information about oneself to others.
Altruism: The selfless concern for the well-being of others, often motivating helping behaviors.
Bystander Effect: The tendency for people to be less likely to offer help in an emergency situation when others are present.
Social Exchange Theory: The theory that human interactions are based on a cost-benefit analysis, with people seeking to maximize rewards and minimize costs.
Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that people will return favors or acts of kindness.
Social-Responsibility Norm: The expectation that people will help those who are dependent or in need.
Conflict: A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Social Trap: A situation in which individuals or groups pursuing their self-interests harm the collective well-being.
Mirror-Image Perceptions: The tendency for conflicting groups to view each other in negative terms, often seeing their own behavior as justified and the other's as malicious.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A belief or expectation that leads to its own fulfillment because people act in ways that confirm the belief.
Superordinate Goals: Goals that require the cooperation of two or more people or groups to achieve, often reducing conflict.
GRIT: A strategy for conflict resolution in which one side makes small, conciliatory acts to reduce tensions and encourage cooperation.
Self-Serving Bias: The tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors (e.g., skill, effort) and failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck).
Key Figures in Social Psychology:
Solomon Asch: Known for his research on conformity, particularly the famous line experiment that demonstrated the power of group pressure.
Leon Festinger: Best known for his work on cognitive dissonance theory, which suggests that we experience discomfort when our beliefs and actions are inconsistent.
Stanley Milgram: Famous for his obedience experiments, which demonstrated that people are willing to obey authority figures, even to the point of causing harm to others.
Philip Zimbardo: Known for the Stanford prison experiment, which demonstrated how situational factors can influence behavior, particularly in terms of authority and power dynamics.
Margaret Floy Washburn: The first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology, Washburn is known for her work on animal behavior and consciousness.
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