AP LANG VOCAB FOR REAL

Abstract Language

Language describing ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people, or places. The observable or "physical" is usually described in concrete language. 

Active Voice

The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases, but not all. (example: The boy grabbed his books and went to school).See also, Passive Voice 

Ad hominem

 Latin for "against the man". When a writer personally attacks his or her opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.

Allegory

A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth. These characters, etc. may be symbolic of the ideas referred to. For example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom.

Alliteration

repetition of initial identical consonant sounds.

Allusion

An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things commonly known such as plays, movies, t.v. shows) with which the readers are supposed to be familiar. Allusion is often used with humorous intent, to establish a connection between writer and reader, or to make a subtle point. 

Ambiguity

An event or situation that may be interpreted in more than one way. Also, the manner of expression of such an event or situation may be ambiguous. Artful language may be ambiguous. Unintentional ambiguity is usually vagueness.

Analogy

 An analogy is a comparison to a directly parallel case. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that a claim reasonable for one case is reasonable for the analogous case. 

Anaphora

 Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer's point more coherent. 

Anecdote

 A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor. 

Annotation

Explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources or give bibliographical data. 

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.(example: If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it. An AP question might read: "What is the antecedent for "it"?) 

Antithesis

Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas. (example: "Bill's work in school was the antithesis of his sister's. Her homework was tidy and on time, while Bill's was sloppy and late." or " Darkness is the antithesis of light." or "New York is the antithesis of Nome Alaska." 

Aphorism

 A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point. It's often equated as a synonym with "adage" or "saying" or "proverb". Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor Richard's Almanac such as " God helps them that help themselves" (Other examples: "A watched pot never boils." or " Nothing comes to those who wait." 

Apostrophe

 A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordswoth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee." 

Appositive

A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning. (Example: Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city. 

Argumentation

To prove the validity of an idea, or a point of view, by presenting good sound reasoning, discussion and argument to convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having the additional aim of urging some form of action. 

Assonance

Repetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity. 

 Causal Relationship

In causal relationships, a writer asserts that one thing results from another. To show how one thing produces or brings about another is often relevant in establishing a logical argument. 

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. (Example: "Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport." In this sentence, the independent clause is "football is my favorite sport" and the dependent clause is "Other than baseball" 

Colloquial

Ordinary or familiar type of conversation. 

Colloquialism

A common or familiar type of saying 

Complex Sentence

 A sentence composed of at least one main clause and one subordinate clause. 

Concession

Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. It is futile to deny a solid point. Rather, a concession is used to regroup and restate your position, taking the concession into account. (see qualification). 

Concrete Language

 Language that describes specific, observable things, people or places, rather than ideas or qualities. 

Connotation

Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning. (Example: Policeman, Cop, Johnny Law, all denote the same literal meaning of Police Officer, but each has a different connotation or impression). See Denotation

 Consonance

Repetition of a consonant sound within two or more words in close proximity.

Coordination

"Coordinating" or combining sentences/clauses into one single sentence. By doing so, the author gives both clauses equal importance. Moreover, the two clauses should be related and reinforce each other. (Example: Give me liberty or give me death! -Patrick Henry). DO NOT hook together ideas which are superficially tied together, but are otherwise unrelated (Example: President Clinton served in office for eight years, and Abraham Lincoln wore a stove pipe hat when he was President.) 

Deduction

 Moving from general statements we accept as true, to an inevitable conclusion. Then the general statements are true, and the reasoning valid, then the conclusion is certainly true. (Example: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.) See also, Syllogism. 

Denotation

To signify or stand as a name for.The explicit meaning of a word. (example: Policeman means Officer of the Law. If you referred to the Policeman as a Cop, it still Denotes the same literal meaning, but the word "cop" has a different Connotation). See also Connotation 

Description

 To recreate , invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Good descriptive writing creates a picture which involves the 5 senses. 

Diction

Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types and arrangements of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang. You should be able to describe an author's diction. You SHOULDN'T write in your thesis, "The author uses diction...". This is essentially saying, "The author chooses words to write." Instead, describe the type of diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain). 

Didactic

A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking. 

Ellipsis

The deliberate omission of a word from prose done for effect by the author. Examples (the omitted word is supplied in parenthesis): Let us, then, take up the sword, trusting in God, who will defend the right, remembering that these are other days than those of yore; (remembering) that the world is on the side of universal freedom. Or It was almost nightfall. The whole day (there was) rain, torrents of rain 

Emotional Appeal

When a writer appeals to an audience's emotions to excite and involve them in the argument. 

Epigraph

A quotation or aphorism at the beginning of a literary work suggestive of theme. 

 Ethical Appeal

 When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him based on presentation of image of self through the text. 

 Euphemism

 A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness ("physically challenged", instead of "crippled"). Sometimes they are used to exaggerate correctness to add humor (a person who is "vertically challenged" is often referred to as being "short") 

Explication

 The act of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. Attention to close reading and figurative language. 

Exposition

To explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. 

 False Analogy

When two cases are not sufficiently parallel to lead readers to accept a claim of connection between them.

Figurative Language

A word or words that are inaccurate literally but call to mind sensation or evoke reactions. Metaphors, similes. "All the world's a stage." .... 

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genres can be subdivided as well (poetry can be classified into lyric, dramatic, narrative, etc.). The AP Language exam deals primarily with the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. 

Homily

This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice. 

Hyperbole

 Figurative language that exaggerates. It is often used in comedy, or to create irony. (Example: "We saw a gas station every five feet when the tank was full, but when we finally needed gas, there wasn't a station for a thousand miles." 

Image

Word or words that create a picture in the reader's mind. Usually this involves the 5 senses. Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, figures of speech to convey information about characters. 

Induction

The process of reasoning from premises that constitute good, but not absolutely certain, reasons to a conclusion that is probably correct. It involved bringing together pieces of evidence, and arriving at a conclusion. (Example: I want to buy new shoes. I've had five pairs of Nikes and never had any foot problems. Reeboks gave me blisters, and Adidas made my ankles hurt. Therefore, I probably should buy Nikes." 

Inference/infer

 To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple-choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from the passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. NOTE THAT IF THE ANSWER CHOICE IS DIRECTLY STATED IN THE TEXT, IT IS NOT INFERRED. 

 Interrogative sentence

Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what , which, who, whom, and whose). (Example: What in the world are you doing hanging out with him?) 

Invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. 

Imperative sentence

 Issues a command (Example: Kick the ball now!) 

 Irony

 When the opposite of what you expect to happen does. 

1. Verbal irony - When you say something and mean the opposite/something different. For example, if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a "walk in the park" it would be verbal irony. If your voice tone is bitter, it's called sarcasm. 

2. Dramatic irony - is when the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn't and would be surprised to find out. For example, in many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn't. 

3. Situational irony - is found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it's funny how things turn out. (example: Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day).

Juxtaposition

 Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Comparison of things or ideas. Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point.(For example, an author may juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone from the Third World in order to make a point of social commentary). 

 Loose Sentence

A complex sentence in which the main clause comes first and the subordinate clause follows. Example: I do not wish to go to school, even though I might learn something interesting. 

Metaphor

 A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for another, suggesting some similarity. Usually identified by comparing objects directly, using words like "was" or "is"(example: The wicked stepmother was evil. She was a cold hearted snake.) 

Mood

The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction). Syntax is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and complexity also affect pacing and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the mood. 

Non-sequitur

 Statement that does not logically follow another. 

 Objectivity

An author's stance that distances himself from personal involvement. 

Onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of the words. When the word sounds like the idea it communicates: "murmur", "gurgle", "roar", "buzz". If you identify this in a passage, make sure to explain WHY the author chose to use it...how does it impact the passage. 

Oversimplification

 When the writer denies the complexity of an idea. 

Oxymoron

 A rhetorical antithesis -- "wise fool" " eloquent silence", "jumbo shrimp". Apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox. 

Paradox

 A seemingly contradictory statement which is actually true. An idea which embeds a contradiction. (Example: "You can't get a job without experience, and you can't get experience without getting a job".) 

Parallelism

 Also known as parallel construction. Sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other or repeats patterns two or more times. IT IS THE REPETITION OF STRUCTURE NOT THE REPETITION OF IDEAS IN DIFFERENT WORDS. It may involve two or three modifiers in a row or repeated beginnings of longer sentences. The author might repeat a preposition, or verbal phrase. Charles Dickens' novel A tale of Two Cities begins with "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness..etc...etc". Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to a persuasive speech. Julius Caesar "I came, I saw, I conquered". Another example of Parallel construction: She looked tired, frustrated, and disgusted. Yet another example (notice the parallel construction of each part, as they are laid out in each new line: A new generation of Americans born in this century tempered by war disciplined by a hard and bitter peace proud of their ancient heritage 

Parenthetical Idea

Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. It is almost considered an aside...a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly. Parentheses can also be used to set off dates and numbers. (example: In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be plum out of oil.)

Parody

 An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows words or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text, event, etc. The Simpsons often do parodies of Shakespeare plays. Saturday Night Live also does parodies of famous persons and events. 

Passive Voice

The subject of the sentence receives the action. The passive voice is often overused, leaving writing to seem lifeless. When possible, focus on using active voice. (Example: The books were grabbed by the boy on his way out the door.) See also, Active Voice. 

Pedantic

 adj. - observing strict adherence to formal rules or literal meaning at the expense of a wider view. This can also refer to the author's tone, as overly scholarly and academic.

Periodic Sentence

A sentence in which the main clause (or the main idea) comes last. (notice this sentence is also parallel in construction)/ Example: If students are absorbed in their own limited worlds, if they are disdainful of the work of their teachers, if they are scornful of the lessons of the past, then the great cultural heritage which must be transmitted from generation to generation will be lost. 69. Persona - The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story. 

70. Personification - A type of figurative language which attributes human qualities to non-human subjects. (example: The ocean roared in anger at the ship and its crew. 

Persona

The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story. 

 Personification

A type of figurative language which attributes human qualities to non-human subjects. (example: The ocean roared in anger at the ship and its crew. 

Persuasive writing

is a type of argumentation having the additional aim of urging some form of action. 

Predicate Adjective

An adjective , group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies the subject. (Example: "My dog is fat, slow, and shaggy." The group of predicate adjectives ("fat, slow, and shaggy”) describe "my dog.”

Predicate Nominative

A noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. it follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. (example: " My dog is a mutt with character." IN this case "mutt with character" is the predicate nominative since it renames "my dog.”

Qualification

Redefining your argument so that it no longer conflicts with the valid claim of an opposing viewpoint (see Concession). This is known as qualifying your argument. 

Refutation

When the writer musters relevant opposing arguments. 

Repetition

Reinforcing a point by repeating the point. Repetition can also involve simply repeating a word or series of words which are fundamental to the author's point. 

Rhetoric

 The art of effective communication.

Rhetorical Question

Question not asked for information but for effect (Example: The angry parent asked the child, "Are you done interrupting me?" In this case, the parent does not expect a reply, but simply wants to draw the child's attention to the rudeness of interrupting. 

Sarcasm

A generally bitter comment that is ironically worded. However, not all ironic statements are sarcastic. Sarcasm is usually a way to mock or ridicule something, while irony isn't. 

Satire

A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. It usually uses wit, irony, parody, caricature, hyperbole, sarcasm. Good satire is not only funny, but thought provoking. (Kurt Vonnegut has written many great satires). 

Sentence

A group of words (including a subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought. 

Simple sentence

 A group of words (including a subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought. 

Compound sentence

 Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses.

Complex sentence

Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. 

Compound-complex sentence

contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. 

Balanced Sentence

 One in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically. (example: "If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich." - J.F. Kennedy) 

 Loose Sentence

The main idea is introduced at or near the beginning and then modified by less important elements. (example: "He learned to fix cars from Alice McMahon, an elderly spinster who used to spend her spare time partying with Volvo mechanics.") 

Periodic Sentence

 When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause. (Example: "His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience.") 

Simile

 A figurative usage that compares. It usually uses the words such as "like", "as", or "if". Comparing someone to a summers day is a simile.  

Style

The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious. 

 Subordination

Taking less important ideas and placing them in dependent clauses, and focusing the reader's attention on the main important idea and placing it in the independent clause (example: Although he was tired and wet, Bill was determined to get to school on time. In this example, the most important piece of information to the reader is that Bill is determined to get to school on time. The fact that he was tired and wet is subordinate to this main idea.)

Subordinate Clause

A word group that contains both a subject and a verb. but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does note express a complete thought. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses (although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon, as, while, who, when, where how, and that.)

Syllogism

A deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises - the first one "major" the second one "minor" that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. Example: Major Premise: All men are mortal. Minor Premise: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. 

Symbol/symbolism

 Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete such as an object, actions, character...that represents something more abstract. Examples of symbols include the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in "The Raven". 

Syntax

 Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most difficult concepts to master. First, a reader should examine the length of sentences (short or long). How does sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning? Are they simple, compound, compound-complex sentences? How do they relate to one another? Syntax is the grouping of words, while diction refers to the selection of individual words. 

 Theme

The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction. 

 Thesis

The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. It should be short and clear. A thesis is NOT:A series of cold facts.A restatement of the obvious 

Tone

A writer's attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted it to sound aloud). Tone can be: playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc. 

 Topic Sentence

 It either expresses the main point outright or makes that point unmistakably clear. It tells the reader what the following paragraph will be about. (Example: " The Vanity of older people is an easier weakness to explain, and to condone." 

Transition

Smooth movement from one paragraph (or idea) to another. Words and ideas are used to connect two distinct and separate ideas and/or paragraphs. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are: furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, and on the contrary.